Skip to main content
Disciplines
Automotive Business IT + Informatics Construction + Real Estate Electrical Engineering + Electronics Energy + Sustainability Insurance + Risk Finance + Banking Management + Leadership Marketing + Sales Mechanical Engineering + Materials
Events
DE
EN
Books
Journals
Topic Page
Marketing
Start single access now
Access for companies
EXTENDED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Published in:
Introduction Read chapter Read first chapter

2021 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

5. Operationalising Minimum Force: The Need for Evidence

Authors : Dr Richard Evans, Dr Clare Farmer

Published in: Do Police Need Guns?

Publisher: Springer Singapore

Log in

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

In Chaps. 3 and 4, we examined the minimum force and armed traditions of policing. We drew attention to key assumptions which frame support for both routinely armed and routinely unarmed policing, and highlighted the absence of empirical evidence to underpin any argument for change. In this chapter we introduce our comparative study, which set out to develop an evidence base to inform understanding of the effects on safety of the routine arming of police officers. We explain the rationale and research design for our study, the choice of four locations used in our analysis, and the ways in which minimum force is operationalised in each. We then document our research method and approach, and also acknowledge a number of methodological limitations.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe




 

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now
previous chapter ‘As Well Armed as the Criminal’: The Armed Tradition
next chapter ‘The Law of the Instrument’: Examining the Nexus Between Safety and the Routine Arming of Police Officers
Footnotes
1
Prominent among the others are Ireland, Iceland, Norway, Botswana, Malawi, and a number of smaller island nations such as Samoa, Nauru, Tonga and Fiji.
 
2
All New Zealand officers are trained to use firearms, and frontline police vehicles carry firearms in a lock box.
 
3
Under Scottish law, specific guidance is provided on the use of firearms—as the most serious use of force option: “a police officer is not entitled to discharge a firearm against a person unless the officer has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is committing, or about to commit, an action likely to endanger the life or cause serious injury to the officer or any other person, and there is no other way to prevent the danger” (College of Policing 2018).
 
Literature
Anderson, D. (2017). Attacks in London and Manchester, March–June 2017. Independent assessment of MI5 and police internal reviews. London: Brick Court Chambers.
BBC. (2019). Justine Damond: US policeman jailed for Australian’s murder. BBC News Online. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.
Bolger, P. C. (2015). Just following orders: A meta-analysis of the correlates of American police officer use of force decisions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(3), 466–492.CrossRef
Bradford, B., & Jackson, J. (2016). Enabling and constraining police power: On the moral regulation of policing. In Jacobs, J. & Jackson, J. (Eds.), Routledge handbook of criminal justice ethics. Oxon: Routledge.
Bradford, B., Milani, J., & Jackson, J. (2017). Identity, legitimacy and “making sense” of police use of force. Policing: An International Journal, 40(3):614–627.
Bronitt, S., & Stenning, P. (2011). Understanding discretion in modern policing. Criminal Law Journal, 35, 319–332.
Crawford, A. (2017). ‘Reassurance policing: Feeling is believing. In Henry, A. & Smith, D. J. (Eds.), Transformations of policing. Oxon: Routledge.
Dodd, V. (2017). Majority of police officers are prepared to carry guns, survey finds. The Guardian, 23 Sept. Accessed 30 Sept 2019.
Dodd, V. (2018). UK police chiefs discuss officers routinely carrying guns. The Guardian, 17 May. Accessed 15 Oct 2019.
Dube, P. (2016). A matter of life and death. Ontario: Ombudsman of Ontario.
Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M. (2019). Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(34), 16793–16798.CrossRef
Eustachewich, L. (2018). Knife attacks and murders spike in the UK. New York Post, 19 Jul. Accessed 25 Feb 2019.
Fielding, N., & Innes, M. (2006). Reassurance policing, community policing and measuring police performance. Policing and Society, 16(2), 127–145.CrossRef
Fleming, J. (2005). ‘Working Together’: Neighbourhood Watch, reassurance policing and the potential of partnerships. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, No. 303, Sept.
Gerber, M. M., & Jackson, J. (2017). Justifying violence: Legitimacy, ideology and public support for police use of force. Psychology, Crime & Law, 23(1), 79–95.CrossRef
Hendy, R. (2014). Routinely armed and unarmed police: What can the Scandinavian experience teach us? Policing, 8(2), 183–192.CrossRef
Hendy, R. (2019). Procedural conflict and conflict resolution: A cross-national study of police officers from New Zealand and South Australia. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Cambridge.
Huq, A., Jackson, J., & Trinkner, R. (2017). Legitimating practices: Revisiting the predicates of police legitimacy. British Journal of Criminology, 57(5), 1101–1122.
Klockars, C. B. (1985). The idea of police. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Knutsson, J., & Strype, J. (2003). Police use of firearms in Norway and Sweden: The significance of gun availability. Policing & Society, 13(4), 429–439.CrossRef
Kuhns, J. B., Knutsson, J., & Bayley, D. H. (2010). Police use of force: A global perspective. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger.
Long, T. (2016). Lethal force. London: Ebury Press.
Mastrofski, D. (2004). Controlling street-level police discretion. American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 100–118.CrossRef
McCulloch, J., & Sentas, V. (2006). The killing of Jean Charles de Menezes. Social Justice, 33(4), 92–106.
McNeilly, G. (2017). Police interactions with people in crisis and use of force. Toronto: Office of the Independent Police Review Director.
Miller, L. (2015). Why cops kill: The psychology of police deadly force encounters. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 22 (May–June), 97–111.
Mouzos, J. (2003). Australian homicide rates: A comparison of three data sources. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 261 (July). Australian Institute of Criminology.
Nowacki, J. S. (2015). Organizational-level police discretion: An application for police use of lethal force. Crime & Delinquency, 61(5), 643–668.CrossRef
Osse, A., & Cano, I. (2017). Police deadly use of firearms: An international comparison. The International Journal of Human Rights, 21(5), 629–649.CrossRef
Paoline, E. A., Gau, J. M., & Terrill, W. (2018). Race and the police use of force encounter in the United States. British Journal of Criminology, 58(1), 54–74.
Sarre, R. (2019). Gun control: An Australian perspective. In Carlson, J., Goss, K., & Shapira, H. (Eds.), Gun Studies: Interdisciplinary approaches to politics, policy and practice. Oxon: Routledge.
Squires, P., & Kennison, P. (2010). Shooting to kill? Policing, firearms and armed response. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRef
Terrill, W., & Paoline, E. A. (2013). Less lethal force policy and police officer perceptions: A multi-site examination. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 40(10), 1109–1130.CrossRef
Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why people obey the law. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Tyler, T. R., & Jackson, J. (2014). Popular legitimacy and the exercise of legal authority: Motivating compliance, cooperation, and engagement. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(1), 78–95.CrossRef
Tyler, T. R., & Wakslak, C. J. (2004). Profiling and police legitimacy: Procedural justice, attributions of motive, and acceptance of police authority. Criminology, 42(2), 253–281.CrossRef
UNODC. (2014). Global study on homicide. Vienna: UNODC.
Waddington, P. A. J. (2007). Use of force. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(3), 249–251.
Waddington, P. A. J., & Wright, M. (2010). Police use of guns in unarmed countries: The United Kingdom. In Kuhns, J. B., & Knutsson, J. (Eds.), Police use of force: A global perspective. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger.
White, M. D. (2002). Identifying situational predictors of police shootings using multivariate analysis. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(4), 726–751.
Zimring, F. E. (2017). When police kill. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Metadata
Title
Operationalising Minimum Force: The Need for Evidence
Authors
Dr Richard Evans
Dr Clare Farmer
Copyright Year
2021
Publisher
Springer Singapore
Book
Do Police Need Guns?

Print ISBN: 978-981-15-9525-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-15-9526-4

Copyright Year: 2021

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9526-4_5