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Open Access 2015 | Open Access | Book

Perspectives on European Earthquake Engineering and Seismology

Volume 2

Editor: Atilla Ansal

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Book Series : Geotechnical, Geological and Earthquake Engineering

Part of: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Table of Contents

About this book

This book collects 4 keynote and 15 theme lectures presented at the 2nd European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (2ECEES), held in Istanbul, Turkey, from August 24 to 29, 2014. The conference was organized by the Turkish Earthquake Foundation - Earthquake Engineering Committee and Prime Ministry, Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency under the auspices of the European Association for Earthquake Engineering (EAEE) and European Seismological Commission (ESC).

The book’s nineteen state-of-the-art chapters were written by the most prominent researchers in Europe and address a comprehensive collection of topics on earthquake engineering, as well as interdisciplinary subjects such as engineering seismology and seismic risk assessment and management. Further topics include engineering seismology, geotechnical earthquake engineering, seismic performance of buildings, earthquake-resistant engineering structures, new techniques and technologies, and managing risk in seismic regions. The book also presents the First Professor Inge Lehmann Distinguished Award Lecture given by Prof. Shamita Das in honor of Prof. Dr. Inge Lehmann.

The aim of this work is to present the state-of-the art and latest practices in the fields of earthquake engineering and seismology, with Europe’s most respected researchers addressing recent and ongoing developments while also proposing innovative avenues for future research and development. Given its cutting-edge conten

t and broad spectrum of topics, the book offers a unique reference guide for researchers in these fields.

Audience:
This book is of interest to civil engineers in the fields of geotechnical and structural earthquake engineering; scientists and researchers in the fields of seismology, geology and geophysics. Not only scientists, engineers and students, but also those interested in earthquake hazard assessment and mitigation will find in this book the most recent advances.

Frontmatter

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Chapter 1. Supershear Earthquake Ruptures – Theory, Methods, Laboratory Experiments and Fault Superhighways: An Update

Abstract

The occurrence of earthquakes propagating at speeds not only exceeding the shear wave speed of the medium (~3 km/s in the Earth’s crust), but even reaching compressional wave speeds of nearly 6 km/s is now well established. In this paper, the history of development of ideas since the early 1970s is given first. The topic is then discussed from the point of view of theoretical modelling. A brief description of a method for analysing seismic waveform records to obtain earthquake rupture speed information is given. Examples of earthquakes known to have propagated at supershear speed are listed. Laboratory experiments in which such speeds have been measured, both in rocks as well as on man-made materials, are discussed. Finally, faults worldwide which have the potential to propagate for long distances (> about 100 km) at supershear speeds are identified (“fault superhighways”).

Shamita Das

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Chapter 2. Civil Protection Achievements and Critical Issues in Seismology and Earthquake Engineering Research

Abstract

A great complexity characterizes the relationships between science and civil protection. Science attains advances that can allow civil protection organizations to make decisions and undertake actions more and more effectively. Provided that these advances are consolidated and shared by a large part of the scientific community, civil protection has to take them into account in its operational procedures and in its decision-making processes, and it has to do this while growing side by side with the scientific knowledge, avoiding any late pursuit.

The aim of the paper is to outline the general framework and the boundary conditions, to describe the overall model of such relationships and the current state-of-the-art, focusing on the major results achieved in Italy and on the many criticalities, with special regards to research on seismic risk.

Among the boundary conditions, the question of the different roles and responsibilities in the decision-making process will be addressed, dealing in particular with the contribution of scientists and decision-makers, among the others, in the risk management. In this frame, the different kinds of contributions that civil protection receives from the scientific community will be treated. Some of them are directly planned, asked and funded by civil protection. Some contributions come instead from research that the scientific community develops in other frameworks. All of them represent an added value from which civil protection wants to take advantage, but only after a necessary endorsement by a large part of the scientific community and an indispensable adaptation to civil protection utilization. This is fundamental in order to avoid that any decision and any consequent action, which could in principle affect the life and property of many citizens, be undertaken on the basis of non-consolidated and/or minor and/or not shared scientific achievements.

Mauro Dolce, Daniela Di Bucci

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Chapter 3. Earthquake Risk Assessment: Certitudes, Fallacies, Uncertainties and the Quest for Soundness

Abstract

This paper addresses, from engineering point of view, issues in seismic risk assessment. It is more a discussion on the current practice, emphasizing on the multiple uncertainties and weaknesses of the existing methods and approaches, which make the final loss assessment a highly ambiguous problem. The paper is a modest effort to demonstrate that, despite the important progress made the last two decades or so, the common formulation of hazard/risk based on the sequential analyses of source (M, hypocenter), propagation (for one or few IM) and consequences (losses) has probably reached its limits. It contains so many uncertainties affecting seriously the final result, and the way that different communities involved, modellers and end users are approaching the problem is so scattered, that the seismological and engineering community should probably re-think a new or an alternative paradigm.

Kyriazis Pitilakis

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Chapter 4. Variability and Uncertainty in Empirical Ground-Motion Prediction for Probabilistic Hazard and Risk Analyses

Abstract

The terms aleatory variability and epistemic uncertainty mean different things to people who routinely use them within the fields of seismic hazard and risk analysis. This state is not helped by the repetition of loosely framed generic definitions that actually inaccurate. The present paper takes a closer look at the components of total uncertainty that contribute to ground-motion modelling in hazard and risk applications. The sources and nature of uncertainty are discussed and it is shown that the common approach to deciding what should be included within hazard and risk integrals and what should be pushed into logic tree formulations warrants reconsideration. In addition, it is shown that current approaches to the generation of random fields of ground motions for spatial risk analyses are incorrect and a more appropriate framework is presented.

Peter J. Stafford

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Chapter 5. Seismic Code Developments for Steel and Composite Structures

Abstract

As with other codified guidance, seismic design requirements undergo a process of continuous evolution and development. This process is usually guided by improved understanding of structural behaviour based on new research findings, coupled with the need to address issues identified from the practical application of code procedures in real engineering projects. Developments in design guidance however need to balance detailed technical advancements with the desire to maintain a level of practical stability and simplicity in codified rules. As a result, design procedures inevitably incorporate various simplifications and idealisations which can in some cases have adverse implications on the expected seismic performance and hence on the rationale and reliability of the design approaches. With a view to identifying the needs for future seismic code developments, this paper focuses on assessing the underlying approaches and main procedures adopted in the seismic design of steel and composite framed structures, with emphasis on the current European seismic design code, Eurocode 8. Codified requirements in terms of force reduction factors, ductility considerations, capacity design verifications, and connection design procedures, are examined. Various requirements that differ notably from other international seismic codes, particularly those incorporated in North American provisions, are also pointed out. The paper highlights various issues related to the seismic design of steel and composite frames that can result in uneconomical or impractical solutions, and outlines several specific seismic code development needs.

Ahmed Y. Elghazouli

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Chapter 6. Seismic Analyses and Design of Foundation Soil Structure Interaction

Abstract

The topic of this paper is to illustrate on a real project one aspect of soil structure interaction for a piled foundation. Kinematic interaction is well recognized as being the cause of the development of significant internal forces in the piles under seismic loading. Another aspect of kinematic interaction which is often overlooked is the modification of the effective foundation input motion. As shown in the paper such an effect may however be of primary importance.

Alain Pecker

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Chapter 7. Performance-Based Seismic Design and Assessment of Bridges

Abstract

Current trends in the seismic design and assessment of bridges are discussed, with emphasis on two procedures that merit some particular attention, displacement-based procedures and deformation-based procedures. The available performance-based methods for bridges are critically reviewed and a number of critical issues are identified, which arise in all procedures. Then two recently proposed methods are presented in some detail, one based on the direct displacement-based design approach, using equivalent elastic analysis and properly reduced displacement spectra, and one based on the deformation-based approach, which involves a type of partially inelastic response-history analysis for a set of ground motions and wherein pier ductility is included as a design parameter, along with displacement criteria. The current trends in seismic assessment of bridges are then summarised and the more rigorous assessment procedure, i.e. nonlinear dynamic response-history analysis, is used to assess the performance of bridges designed to the previously described procedures. Finally some comments are offered on the feasibility of including such methods in the new generation of bridge codes.

Andreas J. Kappos

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Chapter 8. An Algorithm to Justify the Design of Single Story Precast Structures

Abstract

An attempt to estimate the displacement demands of precast cantilever columns has been presented here. The purpose of the findings presented is to set up a more reliable design philosophy based on dynamic displacement considerations instead of using acceleration spectrum based design which initiates the action with unclear important assumptions such as the initial stiffness, displacement ductility ratios etc. The sole aim of this chapter is to define a procedure for overcoming the difficulties rising right at the beginning of the traditional design procedure.

For that purpose first 12 groups of earthquake records cover the cases of far field, near field, firm soil, soft soil possibilities for 2/50, 10/50 and 50/50 earthquakes with minimum scale factors are identified associated to the present fundamental period of structure. And they are reselected for each new period of structure during the iterative algorithm presented here and they are used to remove the displacement calculations based on static consideration. Nonlinear time history analysis (NLTHA) are employed within the algorithm presented here which takes into account the strength and stiffness degradations of structural elements and the duration of records which are ignored in the spectrum based design philosophy.

H. F. Karadoğan, I. E. Bal, E. Yüksel, S. Ziya Yüce, Y. Durgun, C. Soydan

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Chapter 9. Developments in Seismic Design of Tall Buildings: Preliminary Design of Coupled Core Wall Systems

Abstract

Performance-based seismic engineering has brought new dimensions to tall building design, leading to a major transformation from the prescriptive/linear strength-based approach to the explicit non-prescriptive/nonlinear deformation-based design approach. In this context, current tall building seismic design practice is based on a well-established design methodology, which starts with a preliminary design followed by two performance evaluation stages. In this methodology, preliminary design represents the critical phase of the tall building design where all structural elements have to be preliminarily proportioned and reinforced for the subsequent performance evaluation stages. However, there are several problems inherent in the existing preliminary design practice. Preliminary design based on linear analysis could lead to unacceptable sizing and reinforcing of the main structural elements of tall buildings. In particular, linear preliminary design procedures applied to coupled core wall systems would most likely lead to an overdesign of coupling beams with inappropriate and heavily congested reinforcement requirements. In addition, linear analysis with reduced seismic loads may result in under-designed wall elements especially in terms of their shear strength. Simple procedures based on first principles have been developed to estimate base overturning moment capacity, total coupling shear capacity and overall ductility demand of the coupled core wall systems, which can be efficiently used in the preliminary seismic design of tall buildings.

M. Nuray Aydınoğlu, Eren Vuran

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Chapter 10. Seismic Response of Underground Lifeline Systems

Abstract

This paper presents and discusses the recent developments related to seismic performance and assessment of buried pipelines. The experience from the performance of pipelines during last earthquakes provided invaluable information and lead to new developments in the analysis and technologies. Especially, the pipeline performance during Canterbury earthquake sequence in New Zealand is taken as a case study here. The data collected for the earthquake sequence are unprecedented in size and detail, involving ground motion recordings from scores of seismograph stations, high resolution light detection and ranging (LiDAR) measurements of vertical and lateral movements after each event, and detailed repair records for thousands of km of underground pipelines with coordinates for the location of each repair. One of the important learnings from the recent earthquakes is that some earthquake resistant design and technologies proved to be working. This provides a motivation to increase international exchange and cooperation on earthquake resistant technologies. Another observation is that preventive maintenance is important to reduce the pipeline damage risk from seismic and other hazards. To increase the applicability and sustainability, seismic improvements should be incorporated into the pipe replacement and asset management programs as part of the preventive maintenance concept. However, it is also important to put in the most proper pipeline from the start as replacing or retrofitting the pipelines later requires substantial investment. In this respect, seismic considerations should be taken into account properly in the design phase.

Selçuk Toprak, Engin Nacaroğlu, A. Cem Koç

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Chapter 11. Seismic Performance of Historical Masonry Structures Through Pushover and Nonlinear Dynamic Analyses

Abstract

Earthquakes are the main cause of damage for ancient masonry buildings. In order to reduce their vulnerability with compatible and light interventions, it is necessary to have accurate models for the seismic analysis, able to simulate the nonlinear behaviour of masonry, and well defined Performance-Based Assessment (PBA) procedure, aimed to guarantee acceptable levels of risk for the use of the building, the safety of occupants and the conservation of the monument itself. Displacement-based approach is the more appropriate for this type of structures, which cracks even for low intensity earthquakes and can survive to severe ones only if they have a sufficient displacement capacity. Among the wide variety of historical masonry structures, buildings characterized by a box-type behavior are here considered, which can be modeled through the equivalent frame model, considering the assembling of nonlinear piers and spandrels. Thus, the main object of the paper is to establish a strict equivalence between the use of static pushover and incremental dynamic analyses for the PBA. Pros and cons of the two methods are discussed, as well as some critical issues related to their application. A multiscale approach is proposed for the definition of the performance levels, which considers the seismic response at different scales: local damage in single elements, performance of single walls and horizontal diaphragms and global behavior. An original contribution is the use of Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) technique for the correct interpretation of numerical and experimental dynamic results.

Sergio Lagomarsino, Serena Cattari

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Chapter 12. Developments in Ground Motion Predictive Models and Accelerometric Data Archiving in the Broader European Region

Abstract

This paper summarizes the evolution of major strong-motion databases and ground-motion prediction equations (GMPEs) for shallow active crustal regions (SACRs) in Europe and surrounding regions. It concludes with some case studies to show the sensitivity of hazard results at different seismicity levels and exceedance rates for local (developed from country-specific databases) and global (based on databases of multiple countries) GMPEs of the same region. The case studies are enriched by considering other global GMPEs of SACRs that are recently developed in the USA. The hazard estimates computed from local and global GMPEs from the broader Europe as well as those obtained from global GMPEs developed in the US differ. These differences are generally significant and their variation depends on the annual exceedance rate and seismicity. Current efforts to improve the accelerometric data archives in the broader Europe as well as more refined GMPEs that will be developed from these databases would help the researchers to understand the above mentioned differences in seismic hazard.

Sinan Akkar, Özkan Kale

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Chapter 13. Towards the “Ultimate Earthquake-Proof” Building: Development of an Integrated Low-Damage System

Abstract

The 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence has highlighted the severe mismatch between societal expectations over the reality of seismic performance of modern buildings. A paradigm shift in performance-based design criteria and objectives towards damage-control or low-damage design philosophy and technologies is urgently required. The increased awareness by the general public, tenants, building owners, territorial authorities as well as (re)insurers, of the severe socio-economic impacts of moderate-strong earthquakes in terms of damage/dollars/downtime, has indeed stimulated and facilitated the wider acceptance and implementation of cost-efficient damage-control (or low-damage) technologies.

The ‘bar’ has been raised significantly with the request to fast-track the development of what the wider general public would hope, and somehow expect, to live in, i.e. an “earthquake-proof” building system, capable of sustaining the shaking of a severe earthquake basically unscathed.

The paper provides an overview of recent advances through extensive research, carried out at the University of Canterbury in the past decade towards the development of a low-damage building system as a whole, within an integrated performance-based framework, including the skeleton of the superstructure, the non-structural components and the interaction with the soil/foundation system.

Examples of real on site-applications of such technology in New Zealand, using concrete, timber (engineered wood), steel or a combination of these materials, and featuring some of the latest innovative technical solutions developed in the laboratory are presented as examples of successful transfer of performance-based seismic design approach and advanced technology from theory to practice.

Stefano Pampanin

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Chapter 14. Archive of Historical Earthquake Data for the European-Mediterranean Area

Abstract

The importance of historical earthquake data is largely recognized by both seismologists and engineers, who use such data in a wide range of applications.

At the European-Mediterranean scale, several databases dealing with historical earthquake data – mostly intensity data points – exist and are constantly maintained and updated, as well as national earthquake catalogues. In addition, a number of studies on historical earthquakes are published every year. Most of these activities are being performed at a national scale, depending on each country’s needs, and according to diverse methodologies. As a result, the earthquake history of Europe is today fragmented in a puzzle of different, only partially overlapping sets of data, which, at the continent scale, are not homogeneously collected and interpreted. This situation is particularly evident in the frontier areas, where historical earthquakes are often interpreted in a conflicting and/or partial way by the catalogues of the bordering countries. In addition, the background information upon which several historical catalogues are built is not published or not easily accessible.

In recent years, a major effort was made to bridge over these gaps, by establishing cooperation among existing national databases, and creating new ones according to common standards. Particular attention was devoted to retrieve the earthquake background information, that is, the results of historical earthquake investigation in terms of a paper, a report, a book chapter, a map, etc. As most of the information on an historical earthquake can be summarized in a set of Macroseismic Data Points (MDPs) – i.e. a list of localities (name and coordinates) with a macroseismic intensity assessment and the related macroseismic scale – a dedicated effort was addressed to make such data publicly available.

The described activities resulted in the European Archive of Historical Earthquake Data (AHEAD). The Archive is conceived as a pan-European common and open platform supporting the research activities in the field of historical seismology by (i) tracing back, preserving and granting access to the sources of data on the earthquake history of Europe (papers, reports, MDPs, and catalogues), and (ii) establishing relations among these data. AHEAD inventories multiple sets of information concerning each European earthquake in the time-window 1000–1899. The AHEAD web portal (http://www.emidius.eu/AHEAD/) gives access, as of today, to 4,722 earthquakes and the related background information as provided by 338 data sources. All these data can be queried by earthquake and by study, through a user-friendly web-interface. The distinguishing feature of AHEAD is to grant access not only to one study, but to all the available (published) data sources dealing with each individual earthquake, allowing researchers to take into account the different point of views and interpretations.

Andrea Rovida, Mario Locati

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Chapter 15. A Review and Some New Issues on the Theory of the H/V Technique for Ambient Vibrations

Abstract

In spite of the Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR or H/V) technique obtained by the ambient vibrations is a very popular tool, a full theoretical explanation of it has been not reached yet. A short excursus is here presented on the theoretical models explaining the H/V spectral ratio that have been development in last decades. It leads to the present two main research lines: one aims at describing the H/V curve by taking in account the whole ambient-vibration wavefield, and another just studies the Rayleigh ellipticity. For the first theoretical branch, a comparison between the most recent two models of the ambient-vibration wavefield is presented, which are the Distributed Surface Sources (DSS) one and the Diffuse Field Approach (DFA). A mention is done of the current developments of these models and of the use of the DSS for comparing the H/V spectral ratio definitions present in literature. For the second research branch, some insights about the connection between the so-called osculation points of the Rayleigh dispersion curves and the behaviour of the H/V curve are discussed.

Enrico Lunedei, Peter Malischewsky

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Chapter 16. Macroseismic Intervention Group: The Necessary Field Observation

Abstract

French territory is characterized by moderate seismicity, but statistically a strong earthquake strikes mainland France every century. The French Central Seismological Office (BCSF) is in charge of macroseismic enquiries and intensity estimations for each earthquake that effects French territory.

Having used various forms of inquiry since 1921, the BCSF became aware of the limits and biases of macroseismic forms for the collection of the seismic effects, in particular for the estimation of the intensities larger or equal to VI including the damages of buildings. The field observations bring crucial informations for an accurate estimation of the intensities higher or equal to VI.

The last earthquakes in metropolitan France and West Indies islands have motivated the BCSF to create a large professional group dedicated on collecting macroseismic field observations. This group, called the Macroseismic Intervention Group (GIM), includes several earthquake specialists in various specific domains, such as vulnerability, site effects, historical intensity estimates, etc. It contributes to the European macroseismic scale, in its evolution and its future updates. By employing young specialists in this group we allow the continuity of the macroseismic work while improving the use of the acquired field data.

Christophe Sira

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Chapter 17. Bridging the Gap Between Nonlinear Seismology as Reality and Earthquake Engineering

Abstract

In seismic hazard evaluation and risk mitigation, there are many random and epistemic uncertainties. On the another hand, the researches in this area as part of knowledge are with rest, that is, the results are with interpretable questions with open answers. The knowledge cannot be exhausted by results. The authors developed in last time the concept of “Nonlinear Seismology – The Seismology of the XXI Century” (Marmureanu et al. Nonlinear seismology-the seismology of XXI century. In: Modern seismology perspectives, vol 105. Springer, New York, pp 49–70, 2005).

The leading question is: how many cities, villages, metropolitan areas, etc., in seismic regions are constructed on rock? Most of them are located on soil deposits. A soil is of basic type sand or gravel (termed coarse soils), silt or clay (termed fine soils), etc. Strong ground accelerations from large earthquakes can produce a nonlinear response in shallow soils. This can be studied by comparing surface and borehole seismic records for earthquakes of different sizes. When a nonlinear site response is present, then the shaking from large earthquakes cannot be predicted by simple scaling of records from small earthquakes (Shearer, Introduction to seismology, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009). Nonlinear amplification at sediments sites appears to be more pervasive than seismologists used to think…Any attempt at seismic zonation must take into account the local site condition and this nonlinear amplification (Aki, Tectonophysics 218:93–111, 1993).

The difficulty for seismologists is to demonstrate the nonlinear site effects, these being overshadowed by the overall patterns of shock generation and propagation. In other words, the seismological detection of the nonlinear site effects requires a simultaneous understanding/knowledge of earthquake source, propagation path, and local geological site conditions. To see the actual influence of nonlinearity of the whole system (seismic source-path propagation-local geological structure), the authors used to study the free field response spectra which are the last in this chain and are taken into account in seismic design of all structures. Soils from the local geological structure at the recording site exhibit a strong nonlinear behavior under cyclic loading conditions and although they have many common mechanical properties, the use of different models to describe their seismic behavior is required.

The studies made by the authors in this chapter show that using real spectral amplification factors (SAF), amplifications showing local effects, have values which differ totally from those of crustal earthquakes. The spectral amplifications highlight strong nonlinear response of soil composed of fractured limestone, limestone with clay, marl, sands, clay, etc., and these amplifications are strongly dependent of earthquake magnitude and nature of soils from site. Finally, these amplifiers are compared to those from Regulatory Guide 1.60 of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (Design response spectra for seismic design of nuclear power plants. Regulatory Guide 1.60. Rev. 1, Washington, D.C., 1973) which can be used only for crustal earthquakes and not for deep and strong Vrancea earthquakes from Romania. The study of the nonlinear behavior of soils during strong earthquakes may clarify uncertainties in ground motion prediction equations used by probabilistic and classical deterministic seismic hazard analysis.

Gheorghe Marmureanu, Carmen Ortanza Cioflan, Alexandru Marmureanu, Constantin Ionescu, Elena Florinela Manea

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Chapter 18. The Influence of Earthquake Magnitude on Hazard Related to Induced Seismicity

Abstract

An increased focus on seismic hazard related to induced seismicity means that state-of-the-art approaches for earthquake monitoring and hazard estimation associated to tectonic earthquakes are now being applied at smaller and smaller scales. This chapter focuses on a specific issue related to this shift of focus to relatively small earthquakes in close proximity to urban areas. In tectonic earthquake hazard analyses we typically rely on a simple power-law scaling relating earthquake magnitude and recurrence. It is known, however, that for smaller earthquakes, the scaling between different magnitude types is not necessarily linear – meaning that a power law cannot be maintained over all magnitude types. Extrapolation to estimate the recurrence of earthquakes not yet recorded at the study site is therefore non-trivial. For earthquake hazard, the moment magnitude is typically used as input as it is easy to relate to ground motion through empirical equations or simulation approaches. However, for earthquake monitoring, maintaining a complete catalogue including moment magnitude of small events is technically difficult. Instead, a point-measure based magnitude, such as the local magnitude is usually determined. In the following the impact of the non-linear scaling between the magnitude of choice for local monitoring – the local magnitude – and that used for hazard analysis – the moment magnitude – is explored.

Benjamin Edwards

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Chapter 19. On the Origin of Mega-thrust Earthquakes

Abstract

Out of 17 largest earthquakes in the world since 1900 with magnitudes larger than 8.5, 15 of them occurred along convergent plate boundaries as mega-thrust events. Four of these catastrophic earthquakes have occurred during the last decade. The wealth of observational data from these events offer a unique opportunity for Earth Scientists to understand the underlying processes leading to the deformation in subductions zones, not only along the plate interface, but also in plate interiors in both the subducting slab and the overriding plate.

Kuvvet Atakan

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Title: Perspectives on European Earthquake Engineering and Seismology
Editor: Atilla Ansal
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-16964-4
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-16963-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16964-4