Revival of Democracy in Italian Medieval City-Republics

Democracy, abandoned during the early Middle Ages, was revived to a certain extent in the Italian city-republics. The history and political organization of Venetian and Florentine Republics are considered as most exemplary. Although the former had rather aristocratic and the latter oligarchical character, both assumed participation by the people — or a significant part thereof — in the form of assemblies and the election of magistrates. However, elections, in theory aiming at recruiting the most competent, in practice restricted the government to the noble and rich. Democratization also manifested itself in the clergy, in constraining the absolutist power of the Pope and in admittance of civil authorities to certain clerical debates. All of these revitalized interest in the theory of mixed government and forms of people’s participation. The relevant contributions of St. Thomas Aquinas, Marsilius of Padua,William of Ockham, Leonardo Bruni, Francesco Guicciardini, and Niccolo Machiavelli are briefly outlined. Since the wide use of elections required voting procedures, election improvements began to be considered as mathematical problems. In particular, ingenious election methods were invented by two medieval scholars, Ramon Llull and Nicolaus Cusanus, who anticipated the findings of French academicians of the late 18th century.