Social Equity in the Asia-Pacific Region

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. In Search of a More Global Definition of Social Equity

Abstract

Johansen makes a persuasive case for a broader definition of social equity. Focusing on Western and Confucian values in particular, Johansen draws attention to salient differences in the relationship between society and government that influence understandings of equity. After briefly describing the four pillars of public administration, Johansen analyzes the difficulties others have found in defining social equity and why there can be a disconnect between the concepts and principles of social equity as understood in the West, when compared with the world views of people living in the Asia-Pacific region.

Morgen Johansen

Chapter 2. Understanding Social Equity in Public Administration

Abstract

Johansen identifies and presents the various dimensions of social equity found in the literature, and reviews the current ways of measuring and defining social equity. The difference between equity and equality is delineated. The chapter then explores how individual values and discretion affect each person’s realization of social equity. Johansen concludes by discussing how current conceptualizations of social equity neglect the role that context, through values and history, has on the manner in which social equity is realized on the ground.

Morgen Johansen

Chapter 3. Characteristics and Cultures of the Asia-Pacific Region

Abstract

Johansen explores salient commonalities and distinctions of regions and countries in the Asia-Pacific region, notably legal and political systems, cultural values, historical events, and populations. After briefly discussing current global measures of inequality, such as the Human Development Index, the GINI coefficient, and the Gender Gap Index, as well as country demographics, inequality measures for the Asia-Pacific regions and countries featured in this book are presented.

Morgen Johansen

Chapter 4. Ho‘oponopono and the Kānaka Maoli: The Elusive Quest for Social Equity in the Hawaiian Islands

Abstract

Kagan and Ronquillo explore social equity in the Hawaiian context, with a particular eye toward Native Hawaiians’ (kānaka maoli) struggle to maintain their unique culture and identity, and to reconcile it in a modern context as an American state. The chapter begins by describing social equity and Native Hawaiian beliefs, including the principle of ho‘oponopono—or correction and setting things in order. The chapter then examines the relationship between the United States government and Native Hawaiians and argues that the United States has consistently denied social equity to Native Hawaiians. Despite expressions of support for Native self-determination, the United States government continues to promote paternalistic policies that impede the restoration of equality and autonomy. The chapter concludes with a discussion of local efforts and current struggles facing Native Hawaiians.

Jennifer A. Kagan, John C. Ronquillo

Chapter 5. Social (In)equity in Australia?

Abstract

Haigh and Moloney examine the manner in which social equity is embedded in Australian public policy. The chapter argues that Australia’s colonial settlers and their early governments built a society based on hidden divisions which are still evident in many contemporary policy failures. The authors argue that several historical cleavages challenge the nation’s perception as a “lucky country” in which all citizens may achieve economic prosperity. The chapter draws first on case studies that highlight the racial categorization of Australian Aboriginal citizens and, second, on the evolution into market-driven disability schemes. Both cases illustrate how social (in)equity, a term not formally conceptualized in Australia’s scholarly and policy circles, informs where and how government policies can engage and disengage from social equity considerations.

Yvonne Haigh, Kim Moloney

Chapter 6. Social Equity in the Pacific Islands

Abstract

Hassall provides a broad overview of the concept and practice of social equity in the independent Pacific Island states. Some disparities between social groups appeared during the colonial period, while others came with the process of “modernization”. Urban elites obtained education, health services, and government jobs, while those residing further from the urban and administrative centers transitioned from subsistence agriculturalists to “rural poor”. The chapter argues that whereas international development agencies partner with national governments and civil society to monitor the quality of governance and to craft national development plans and sectoral plans to promote social equity, the small island nations are struggling to deliver on the aspirations set out in their independence constitutions and political manifestos.

Graham Hassall

Chapter 7. “Two Chinas”: Social Equity, Social Policies, and the Urban-Rural Divide in China

Abstract

Zhou and Zhu offer an overview of how the concept of social equity has evolved in Chinese social policies since 1949. Social equity was once at the heart of China’s command economy. When China started market economic reforms in the 1980s, social equity gave way to economic efficiency. Despite the changing priorities given to social equity, persistent social inequity exists between the urban and rural areas, which resulted in “two Chinas” in many social policy areas like health care, education, and social welfare. The authors attribute this phenomenon to economic and institutional factors in China. The economic factors associated with industrialization drive China to give greater weight to economic efficiency than social equity, and institutional factors enable China to enact policies favorable to particular groups.

Hui Zhou, Ling Zhu

Chapter 8. A Hong Kong Way of Social Equity

Abstract

In this chapter, Jordan discusses the Hong Kong way of social equity, which brings together historical, governmental, and civil society forces to create unique opportunities for gender, housing, and employment equity. A careful balance of contemporary political forces, multiple languages, and colonial and post-colonial histories in Hong Kong produces what seems on the surface to be rampant inequality but an underlying commitment to equity for Hong Kong people.

Sara Jordan

Chapter 9. Social Equity in Japan

Abstract

Suzuki examines the status of social equity in the context of Japanese culture and society. The concept of social equity has not been widely discussed or well understood in the field of Japanese public administration and politics. Although the term social equity has not been explicitly used, Suzuki identifies several policies and administrative practices in Japan that serve to address various dimensions of disparities among citizens. Regional disparity is one of these dimensions of social equity that Japanese public policy and politics have addressed and been most successful in solving in the last few decades.

Kohei Suzuki

Chapter 10. Social Equity and Public Sector Employment in the Republic of Korea

Abstract

Kim addresses the disadvantaged groups recognized by the Korean government and analyzes affirmative action policies for hiring these disadvantaged groups in the public sector. The disadvantaged groups comprise women, people with disabilities, and talents from local regions beyond Seoul metropolitan areas and from low-income families. The chapter elaborates on the political, economic, and social contexts of creating programs for and providing assistance to the disadvantaged groups. Kim further analyzes how affirmative action affects these groups’ employment status at the national civil service level. Extending beyond the legal frame of affirmative action policies for hiring, “Social Equity and Public Sector Employment in the Republic of Korea” concludes with several reform agendas for promoting the value of diversity for enhancing inclusiveness and social equity in Korean society.

Soonhee Kim

Chapter 11. Social Equity in the Philippines: A Continuing but Elusive Promise

Abstract

In this chapter, Brillantes, Raquiza, and Lorenzo focus on the imperatives of social equity as a fundamental—but normative—principle for contemporary Philippine public administration. The pursuit of social equity may be seen as a response to the problems of pervasive poverty and inequality in spite of, paradoxically, rapid economic growth. The chapter cites two government programs that ostensibly aim to bring about social equity, the Conditional Cash Transfer program and the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion law. Evidence has shown that both programs have yet to make a significant impact to redistribute wealth in a lasting way within the context of social equity. Hence, the chapter argues that social equity in the Philippines is a continuing process but remains an elusive goal.

Alex B. Brillantes Jr, Maria Victoria R. Raquiza, Maria Pilar M. Lorenzo

Chapter 12. Social Equity in Singapore

Abstract

Mathew and Lim focus on the case of multi-ethnic Singapore, which has seen massive economic transformation from colonial British backwater in the late 1950s to one of the richest countries in the world half a century later. While this transformation has also resulted in a large proportion of the population moving from poverty to the middle class, the rate of advancement for different social and ethnic groups has not been equal. This chapter examines the changing roles of the Singaporean state in addressing issues of social fairness and mitigating inequalities. Recent policies have focused on ensuring a minimum standard of living and transformations to the education system to ensure greater opportunities for all while also trying to maintain strong economic growth. This new social compact—growth with equity—aims to address the worries of the middle and lower classes of declining social mobility and rising income inequalities.

Mathews Mathew, Leonard Lim

Chapter 13. Toward a More Global Conceptualization of Social Equity

Abstract

In this concluding chapter, Johansen discusses the most commonly mentioned disadvantaged groups in the preceding chapters. Common policy mechanisms used to address inequities, such as land use and housing, education, and health care are explored. After analyzing the information presented in each of the contributed chapters, Johansen puts forward a set of conclusions about social equity in the Asia-Pacific Region, along with recommendations on how to foster a more global conceptualization of social equity.

Morgen Johansen

Backmatter