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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

8. Sustainable Peace Through Sustainability Transition as Transformative Science: A Peace Ecology Perspective in the Anthropocene

Author : Hans Günter Brauch

Published in: Climate Change, Disasters, Sustainability Transition and Peace in the Anthropocene

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This essay contributes to a conceptual discussion on the need for bridge-building between the natural and social sciences, among different social science disciplines, and the research programmes in political science focusing on peace, security, development and environment (‘sustainable development’), by introducing the two new linkage concepts of ‘political geo-ecology’ and ‘peace ecology’. It focuses on the policy goal of a ‘sustainable peace’ understood as ‘peace with nature’ in the newly proposed epoch of earth history, the Anthropocene.

The key argument of this chapter is that this goal may be achieved by a process of ‘sustainability transition’ that addresses the economic causes of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere, in which where concerned individuals, families, local communities, states and nations as well as international governmental organisations and non-governmental bodies and social movements may contribute to the transition.

This text suggests that the goal of a ‘sustainable peace’ may be addressed from a peace ecology perspective that integrates both peace and security studies and ecology or ecological approaches aiming at the realisation of the goal of a ‘sustainable development’. It is argued that this requires a shift from disciplinary and multidisciplinary research methods towards inter- and transdisciplinary approaches by moving towards a ‘transformative science’ aiming at a ‘sustainable peace’ where the needed policy changes and the actors and processes of this change towards sustainability should become a part of the research design and action research process.

This essay touches on the manifold fundamental conceptual, methodological, theoretical and action-oriented research needs of a ‘peace ecology approach’ that aims at contributing to the realisation of a ‘sustainable peace’ as ‘peace with nature’ in the ‘Anthropocene’, where the societal outcomes of the physical effects of global environmental and climate change can be countered and mitigated by policies of adaptation, mitigation and an increase of resilience by the affected people.

From the perspective of a Hobbesian policy approach of ‘business-as-usual,’ but also from traditional scientific worldviews, this goal may appear at present to be utopian and for sceptics, it is not achievable. It requires a fundamental change in the dominant ‘worldview’ of many scientists and of the neoliberal mindset of most policymakers, practitioners, but also of ordinary citizens towards an alternative sustainability approach.

For the natural and social sciences it requires a new ‘scientific revolution towards sustainability’ – similar to what Kuhn (1962) called the ‘Copernican Revolution’ or Schellnhuber (1999) outlined as a ‘Second Copernican Revolution’ – with a new scientific paradigm of a ‘peace ecology’ that still needs to be developed in the future.

This holistic approach of linking different scientific discourses with discussions in the political realm deliberately distances itself from the mainstream of political science contributions with often narrowly focused theoretical discussions that solely appeal to a scientific audience and are hardly noted in societal and political discussions.

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previous chapter Violent Gender Social Representations and the Family as a Social Institution in Transition in Mexico

This thinking was influenced by natural scientists on the Anthropocene (Crutzen/Stoermer 2000; Crutzen 2002, 2011, 2015; Clark et al. 2004), by human and physical geographers on geopolitics and geo-ecology (Dalby 2013, 2014, 2015; Huggett 1995), by historians (Braudel 1949, 1969, 1972; Osterhammel 2014; Hobsbawm 1994), by social scientists on sustainability transition (Grin et al. 2010; WBGU 2011), and by transformative research (Schneidewind/Singer-Brodowski 2012, 2014; Schneidewind et al. 2016).

See: Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Working Group on the ‘Anthropocene’, at: http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/workinggroups/anthropocene/; http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/majordivisions/anthropocene/ and the book edited by Waters et al. (2014). See the major stratographic divisions at: http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/majordivisions/.

See: “The Anthropocene is here: Scientists” (29 August 2016), at: https://phys.org/news/2016-08-anthropocene-scientists.html (3 April 2018).

See at: https://theanthropocene.org/petrifying-earth-process-the-stratigraphic-imprint-of-key-earth-system-parameters-in-the-anthropocene/.

The emergence of the Anthropocene concept, its concept history, and concept mapping (Brauch 2008), will be discussed by Brauch (2019).

The likelihood of human extinction by wholly natural scenarios is very low but anthropogenic extinction may result from global nuclear annihilation, biological warfare, a pandemic-causing agent, ecological collapse, and global warming (Anthropogenic ecocide).

See at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Paris_Agreement (3 April 2018).

Chris Mooney; Brady Dennis: “On climate change, Scott Pruitt causes an uproar—and contradicts the EPA’s own website”, in: Washington Post, 9 March 2017.

Steven Mufson: “Rick Perry just denied that humans are the main cause of climate change”, in: Washington Post, 19 June 2017.

EPA: “Climate Change”, at: https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climatechange.html (26 August 2017).

NASA: “Global Climate Change: A blanket around the Earth”, at: https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/ (26 August 2017).

See at: https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/aggi.fig2.png.

See at: https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ (3 April 2018); https://www.co2.earth/daily-co2 (3 April 2018).

See: Skadden Arps Slate Meagher & Flom LLP: “Trump Administration Rolls Back Climate Change Initiatives”, 23 January 2018; Lexicology, at: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=ebb4ab65-2664-46aa-abb7-8c9bf597e927.

Scott Waldman: “Trump Budget Would Slash Science across Agencies”, in: Scientific American, 13 February 2018.

Rebecca Hersher, “Climate Scientists Watch Their Words, Hoping To Stave Off Funding Cuts”, 29 November 2017; at: https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/11/29/564043596/climate-scientists-watch-their-words-hoping-to-stave-off-funding-cuts (3 April 2018).

“Macron awards US scientists grants to move to France in defiance of Trump”, in: The Guardian, 11 December 2017; at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/11/macron-awards-grants-to-us-scientists-to-move-to-france-in-defiance-of-trump (3 April 2018).

“As America quits, Europe tries to lead on climate change”, in: The Economist, 6 July 2017; at: https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21724834-g20-will-test-whether-world-can-implement-paris-emission-accords-america-quits (3 April 2018).

“March for Science”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science (3 April 2018).

I am grateful for a critical comment on this reference to Amb. Luis Alberto Padilla Menendez (Guatemala).

See Dalby (2016); at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2053019615618681; Kunnas (2017); “at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2053019617725538?journalCode=anra (7 April 2018).

See the debates at: https://goodanthropocenes.net/definitions-of-a-good-anthropocene/ (7 April 2018); Andrew C. Revkin: “Building a ‘Good’ Anthropocene From the Bottom Up”, 6 October 2016; at: https://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/10/06/building-a-good-anthropocene-from-the-bottom-up/ (7 April 2018); “Bright spots: seeds of a good Anthropocene”; at: http://www.futureearth.org/bright-spots-seeds-good-anthropocene (7 April 2018).

On EcoSERVICES see at: http://www.futureearth.org/projects/ecoservices and at: http://www.futureearth.org/ecoservices/ (7 April 2018).

The Programme on Ecosystem Change and Society (PES) is directed by Albert Norström at the Stockholm Resilience Centre; see at: albert.norstrom@stockholmresilience.su.se and at: http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-programmes-and-projects/2016-03-09-programme-on-ecosystem-change-and-society-pecs.html (7 April 2018).

These changes have been documented in many publications http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/publications/ of the Department of Peace and Conflict Research of Uppsala University and through its Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) at: http://ucdp.uu.se/?id=1 and in the “Conflict Barometer” (from 1997 to present) of the Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research; at: https://www.hiik.de/en/konfliktbarometer/.

IPCC: Fifth Assessment Report (2014); United States Global Change Research Program (2009); Oreskes (2004: 1686).

Tim Marcin: “What Has Trump Said About Global Warming? Eight Quotes on Climate Change as He Announces Paris Agreement Decision”, in: Newsweek, 1 June 2017.

Michael D. Shear: “Trump Will Withdraw U.S. From Paris Climate Agreement”, in: The New York Times, 1 June 2017, Ari Natter: “Donald Trump Notifies UN of Paris Exit While Keeping Option to Return”, in: Time, 5 August 2017.

Juliet Eilperin: “The Trump administration just disbanded a federal advisory committee on climate change”, in: Washington Post, 20 August 2017; at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/08/20/the-trump-administration-just-disbanded-a-federal-advisory-committee-on-climate-change/?utm_term=.fe019cabd981.

See: Regional Dialogues on Sustaining Peace: Shaping UN Strategies for 2018 and Beyond An Informal Planning/Scoping Discussion at Columbia University Law School; at: https://www.stimson.org/; see: UNGA, UNSC: “Peacebuilding and sustaining peace - Report of the Secretary-General, 18 January 2018, A/72/707–S/2018/43; UNGA High-level Meeting on Sustaining Peace, 24–25 April 2018; at: http://sdg.iisd.org/events/unga-high-level-meeting-on-sustaining-peace/: This meeting will “strengthen the UN’s work on peacebuilding and sustaining peace. As specific objectives, the meeting will reflect on how to: (1) Adjust to the new UN approach to peace with the emphasis on conflict prevention; (2) Strengthen operational and policy coherence within the United Nations system towards peacebuilding and sustaining peace; (3) Increase, restructure and better prioritize funding to United Nations peacebuilding activities; (4) Strengthen partnerships between the UN and key stakeholders in the field; (5) Address the root causes of conflict to sustain peace; (6) Address the role of women and youth in peacebuilding.”

See Holzner (1968); Holzner/Marx (1979); Haas (1992). Holzner/Marx (1979) defined them as “knowledge-oriented work communities in which cultural standards and social arrangements interpenetrate around a primary commitment to epistemic criteria in knowledge production and application”. Haas (1992) defined an epistemic community as “a network of professionals with recognised expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area.”

See: Williams, Nathan, film, 2008: The Climate Wars: BBC Earth: Episode 2; at: http://freedocumentaries.org/documentary/fightback-bbc-earth-the-climate-wars-episode-2-of-3; Dyer (2011); Welzer (2012); Butler (2017).

See: Capstick/Pidgeon (2014); Runciman, David, 2017: “How climate scepticism turned into something more dangerous”, in: The Guardian, 7 July; at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/07/climate-change-denial-scepticism-cynicism-politics (5 April 2018); see for an overview with many scientific references on: “Climate change denial”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_denial (5 April 2018).

Plautz, Jason, 2015: “CIA Shuts Down Climate Research Program”, in: The Atlantic, 21 May; at: https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/05/cia-shuts-down-climate-research-program/452502/ (5 April 2018); Hill, Alice C., 2017: “Trump’s environmental order jeopardizes our national security”, in: The Hill, 28 March; at: http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/energy-environment/326221-trumps-climate-change-order-jeopardizes-our-national; Scholl, Ellen; Livingston, David, 2018: “Intelligence Community Continues to See Threat from Climate Change”, 15 February; at: http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/intelligence-community-continues-to-see-threat-from-climate-change (5 April 2018).

Peter Thomson: “Building Sustainable Peace for All”; at: http://www.un.org/pga/71/2017/01/20/building-sustainable-peace-for-all/, (20 January 2017).

See the schedule and all relevant documents; at: http://www.un.org/pga/71/event-latest/building-sustainable-peace-for-all-synergies-between-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development-and-sustaining-peace/ and a summary by the president of the GA, HR Peter Thomson, 29 March 2017, at: http://www.un.org/pga/71/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/2015/08/Summary-of-the-High-level-Dialogue-on-Building-Sustainable-Peace-for-All.pdf.

See in the US on the role of Fox News, Breitbart News and the Sinclair Media Group on Climate Change; at: http://www.foxnews.com/category/us/environment/climate-change.html (5 April 2018); http://www.breitbart.com/environment/ (5 April 2018); Graves, Lucia, 2017: “This is Sinclair, ‘the most dangerous US company you’ve never heard of’”, 17 August; at: https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/aug/17/sinclair-news-media-fox-trump-white-house-circa-breitbart-news (5 April 2018); Ward, Bob, 201x: “President Trump’s fake news about climate change, in: LSE, Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment; at: http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/news/president-trump-fake-news-climate-change/ (5 April 2018).

For KSI see for details: http://www.ksinetwork.nl/home.

For STRN, see: http://www.transitionsnetwork.org/; selected results are published in: Journal on Environmental Innovation and Sustainability Transition; at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-innovation-and-societal-transitions/.

International Social Science Council, 2012: “Transformative Cornerstones of Social Science Research for Global Change” (Paris: ISSC); at: http://www.worldsocialscience.org/documents/transformative-cornerstones.pdf (2 May 2018).

See: “Transformations to Sustainability”; at: http://www.worldsocialscience.org/activities/transformations/, and at: https://transformationstosustainability.org/.

See: Dougsiyeh, Hibaq, 2017: “Media coverage of the Transformative Knowledge Networks”, 17 May; at: https://transformationstosustainability.org/magazine/transformative-knowledge-networks/ (5 April 2018).

See: “Transformative pathways to sustainability: learning across disciplines, contexts and cultures”; at: https://transformationstosustainability.org/research/pathways/.

See: “Transformative pathways to sustainability …”, Ibid.

See Göpel (2016); at: http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/APESS_02.htm and at: http://www.springer.com/de/book/9783319437651.

“Definitions”; at: http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/trec/about-us/definitions/ (4 February 2016).

The theme of the 7th International Sustainability Transition Conference (IST) conference in Wuppertal (Germany) was “Exploring Transition Research as Transformative Science”; at: https://ist2016.org/ and https://transitionsnetwork.org/past-ist-conferences/ (2 May 2018).

This paragraph relies on: “transformative research”; at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformative_research (5 April 2018).

In 2012, the NSF hosted a brainstorming workshop on “Transformative Research: Ethical and Societal Dimensions” that explored the history and alternative conceptions that play an important role in policy debates, and in public discourse on the future of science in society. Key points of the discussion were summarised by Michael E. Gorman, a Professor in the department of science, technology, and society (STS) at the University of Virginia, at: http://www.cccblog.org/?s=Gorman (5 April 2018).

See the three previous volumes edited by Oswald Spring et al. (2014, 2016b); Brauch et al. (2016a).

The proposal by Conca (1994) on “environmental peacemaking” has achieved a total of 322 citations according to ‘google scholar’ from 2002 until April 2018; Amster’s book on peace ecology has gained only 26 citations since 2015. The book by Oswald Spring, Brauch, Tidballs achieved since December 2013 until February 2018 a total of 4799 chapter downloads and the introductory chapter that specifically touches peace ecology received 546 chapter downloads; see at: http://www.bookmetrix.com/detail_full/book/b795abb3-6400-4db9-8073-c03a6ec82f5d#downloads (5 April 2018).

This section relies on Brauch (2016c), where the peace concept has been presented in more detail. The text of the UN Charter is at: http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/ (6 April 2018).

For a discussion of the “meanings of peace” that includes the philosophical debate in China (including Lao Tzu, Confucius, Mo Tzu), and in Buddhist, Hindu, and Judaeo-Christian thinking with the goal of “achieving positive peace”, see Webel (2008) and Oswald Spring (2008).

Johan Galtung commented on an earlier draft: “To me both sustainable peace and environment are guided by two basic deep structures: diversity and symbiosis; hence very dynamic. To impose one culture, Western, one structure, capitalism will lead to the collapse of both; cultures-structures in partnership and species, abiota and biota in symbiosis will lead to higher complexity, evolution—that then has to be watched but is promising. What I read seems to me very compatible with these simple propositions.”

See e.g. Peck (1998); Ekiyor (2006); International Fellowship of Reconciliation (2010); Barnes (2010); Ellerby (2011); Oswald Spring et al. (2014): “Engendered and Sustainable Peace with Resilience Building”, presentation at the 25th IPRA conference in Istanbul; at: http://www.afes-press.de/html/pdf/2014_UOS/text_16.pdf (6 April 2018).

See the discussion by Brauch (2016c: 210–211) on “Developing Sustainable Peace Further” based on the then available literature.

See at: http://www.igbp.net/globalchange/greatacceleration.4.1b8ae20512db692f2a680001630.html.

The global scientific debate on “planetary boundaries” was triggered by these two publications: Rockström et al. (2009); Steffen/Stafford Smith (2013); Steffen et al. (2015b); see also the special website of the Stockholm Resilience Centre: http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2015-01-15-planetary-boundaries---an-update.html (6 April 2018).

This may require for the author to revise his more positive assessment he expressed during the 50th anniversary of IPRA during its 25th Conference in Istanbul in August 2014, one hundred years after the start of the first World War (see Brauch 2016b).

Wikipedia: “Transformative research” (30 August 2017); at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformative_research; Trevors et al. (2012).

European Research Council: “Frontier Research”; at: http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/other/guides_for_applicants/h2020-guide17-erc-adg_en.pdf.

See for an illustration of the transformative research concept of the Wuppertal Institute; at: https://wupperinst.org/en/research/transformative-research/ (30 August 2017).

Amster, Randall, 2014: Peace Ecology (Boulder, CO: Paradigm).

Anderson, Ashley A., 2017: “Effects of Social Media Use on Climate Change Opinion, Knowledge, and Behavior”, in: Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Climate Change, March; at: http://climatescience.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228620-e-369 (5 April 2018).

Anderson, Martin, 1990: Revolution: The Reagan Legacy (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press).

Angus, Ian, 2015: “When did the Anthropocene begin and why does it matter?”, in: Climate & Capitalism (10 September); at: http://climateandcapitalism.com/2015/09/10/when-did-the-anthropocene-begin-and-why-does-it-matter/ (1 September 2017).

Angus, Ian, 2016: “Earth System: Anthropocene Working Group: Yes, a new epoch has begun”, posted on 9 January 2016; at: http://climateandcapitalism.com/2016/01/09/anthropocene-working-group-yes-a-new-epoch-has-begun/ (1 September 2017).

Angus, Ian, 2017: “Protecting business as usual: Another attack on Anthropocene science”, posted on 24 January 2017; at: http://climateandcapitalism.com/2017/01/24/another-attack-on-anthropocene-science/ (1 September 2017).

Barnes, Karen, 2010: Engendering peace or a gendered peace? The UN and liberal peacebuilding in Sierra Leone, 2002–2007, Ph.D. thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (London, UK); at: http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2375/ (6 April 2018).

Beck, Ulrich: “Subpolitics. Ecology and the Disintegration of Institutional Power”, in: Organization & Environment, 10(1) (March 1997): 52–65.CrossRef

Biello, David, 2015: “Did the Anthropocene Begin in 1950 or 50,000 Years Ago?”, in: Scientific American, 2 April.

Boulding, Kenneth E., 1966: “The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth”, in: Jarrett, H. (Ed.): Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press).

Boulding, Kenneth E., 1978: Ecodynamics (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage).

Brauch, Hans Günter, 1994: Global Structural Change, System Transformation and no National Change. Armament and Disarmament Policy in American-Soviet Relations (1981–1992) (Berlin, Free University, habilitation, unpublished).

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2002: “Climate Change, Environmental Stress and Conflict—AFES-PRESS Report for the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety”, in: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (Ed.): Climate Change and Conflict. Can Climate Change Impacts Increase Conflict Potentials? What is the Relevance of This Issue for the International Process on Climate Change? (Berlin: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, 2002): 9–112; at: http://www.afes-press.de/pdf/Brauch_ClimateChange_BMU.pdf.

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2005: Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in Environmental Human Security. Source, 1/2005 (Bonn: UNU-EHS); at: http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1868/pdf4040.pdf.

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2008: “Introduction: Globalisation and Environmental Challenges: Reconceptualising Security in the 21st Century”, in: Brauch, Hans Günter; Oswald Spring, Ursula; Mesjasz, Czeslaw; Grin, John; Dunay, Pal; Behera, Navnita Chadha; Chourou, Béchir; Kameri-Mbote, Patricia; Liotta, P. H. (Eds.): Globalization and Environmental Challenges: Reconceptualizing Security in the 21st Century (Berlin–Heidelberg–New York: Springer): 27–43.

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2009a: “Securitizing Global Environmental Change”, in: Brauch, Hans Günter; Oswald Spring, Ursula; Grin, John; Mesjasz, Czeslaw; Kameri-Mbote, Patricia; Behera, Navnita Chadha; Chourou, Béchir; Krummenacher, Heinz (Eds.): Facing Global Environmental Change: Environmental, Human, Energy, Food, Health and Water Security Concepts. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, vol. 4 (Berlin–Heidelberg–New York: Springer): 65–102.

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2009b: “Introduction: Facing Global Environmental Change and Sectorialization of Security”, in: Brauch, Hans Günter; Oswald Spring, Ursula; Grin, John; Mesjasz, Czeslaw; Kameri-Mbote, Patricia; Behera, Navnita Chadha; Chourou, Béchir; Krummenacher, Heinz (Eds.): Facing Global Environmental Change: Environmental, Human, Energy, Food, Health and Water Security Concepts. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, vol. 4 (Berlin–Heidelberg–New York: Springer): 21–42.

Brauch, Hans Günter, 2011: “Security Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks in US National Security Documents (1990–2010)”, in: Brauch, Hans Günter; Oswald Spring, Úrsula; Mesjasz, Czeslaw; Grin, John; Kameri-Mbote, Patricia; Chourou, Béchir; Dunay, Pal; Birkmann, Jörn (Eds.): Coping with Global Environmental Change, Disasters and Security – Threats, Challenges, Vulnerabilities and Risks (Berlin–Heidelberg–New York: Springer): 249–274.

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Brauch, Hans Günter; Oswald Spring, Úrsula; Mesjasz, Czeslaw; Grin, John; Dunay, Pal; Behera, Navnita Chadha; Chourou, Béchir; Kameri-Mbote, Patricia; Liotta, P. H. (Eds.), 2008: Globalization and Environmental Challenges: Reconceptualizing Security in the 21st Century (Berlin–Heidelberg–New York: Springer).

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Title: Sustainable Peace Through Sustainability Transition as Transformative Science: A Peace Ecology Perspective in the Anthropocene
Author: Hans Günter Brauch
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Climate Change, Disasters, Sustainability Transition and Peace in the Anthropocene
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97561-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-97562-7

Copyright Year: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97562-7_8

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