1 Introduction
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Home advantage in professional sports
2.2 The role of fans in producing atmosphere and sporting success
2.3 COVID-19 and its influence on non-football team sports
3 Method
3.1 Literature identification process
Query Database | COVID-19, football, ghost games | COVID-19, soccer, ghost games | COVID-19, football, behind closed doors | COVID-19, soccer, behind closed doors | COVID-19, football, home advantage | COVID-19, soccer, home advantage | COVID-19, home advantage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EBSCO_HOST | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
EconStor | 2 | 2 (1) | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 (1) | 11 (6) |
Emeraldinsight | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Google Scholar | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | 13 (1) |
JSTOR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Sciencedirect | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Springerlink | 0 | 0 | 7(7) | 2 (2) | 0 | 0 | 0 |
SURF | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
3.2 Systematic literature review characteristics
4 Results
Study (first author, year, peer-reviewed(*)) | Main conclusion (findings: explanation) |
---|---|
Cueva (2020) | Strongly reduced home advantage: Home advantaged dropped by around one half and gap in referees calls between home and away teams disappeared in ghost games "[…] the home advantage dropped by around one half. The effect of the lockdowns is even more dramatic when it comes to referee calls. While referees made consistently more calls against away teams than against home teams before the lockdowns, this gap completely disappears after the lockdowns." (p. 3) |
Sánchez (2021)* | Slightly reduced home advantage: Except for the German and the Spanish top leagues there are no significant differences in wins, points and goals during ghost games "The results show that there are no significant differences between playing with or without a crowd, except in the German and Spanish top leagues. Even so, there is a tendency in most competitions to play worse at home and better away from home when there are no spectators." (p. 152) |
Wunderlich (2021)* | No change in home advantage: Decline of home advantage during ghost games in terms of (reduced) sanctioning of away teams (fouls, yellow and red cards) and (decreased) match dominance of home teams (shots and shots on target) but no significantly decreased home advantage in terms of results "The present data is evidence that in absence of spectators the increased sanctioning of away teams disappears, the match dominance of home teams remains, but is decreased and the home advantage itself decreases, yet insignificantly." (p. 12) |
Bryson (2021)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Reduced social pressure leads to less yellow cards for away teams "We find large and statistically significant effects on the number of yellow cards issued by referees. Without a crowd, fewer cards were awarded to the away teams, reducing home advantage. These results have implications for the influence of social pressure and crowds on the neutrality of decisions." (p. 1) |
McCarrick (2021)* | Reduced home advantage: Home team performance is significantly decreased in ghost games and referees awarded significantly more fouls and yellow cards against the away teams, which are key elements of the home advantage "We find points per game, goals per game and team dominance […] were all significantly reduced in the home teams compared to the away teams […] teams won on average 0.39 points per game more at home than away, but this HA was almost halved in the period without the audience; such that the teams won only 0.22 points more at home than away. So, while the HA is present in games played without fans, its impact is reduced by nearly 50% relative to games where fans are present." (p. 8) |
Scoppa (2021)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Home team performance (points, goals, shots, shots on target, corner kicks) deteriorates while away team performance improves in ghost games “We find considerable effects of the pressure from the crowd: while with the support of the crowd a considerable home advantage emerges in various measures of performance (points, goals, shots, etc.), this advantage is almost halved when matches are played behind closed doors. Similar effects are found for the behavior of referees: decisions of fouls, yellow cards, red cards and penalties that tend to favor home teams in normal matches, are much more balanced without the crowd pressing on referees.” (p. 1) |
Sors (2020)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Results indicate that crowd noise has a relevant role for referee decisions (and so for the home advantage) as it was found that both the referee bias and the home advantage decreased in ghost games "The results bring further support to the claim that, among all the factors contributing to home advantage and referee bias, crowd noise has a relevant role. Thus, spectators can significantly contribute to determine the dynamics and the outcomes of professional football matches." (p. 1) |
Benz (2021)* | No change in home advantage: Mixed findings indicate that changes of home advantage in ghost games is league dependent, indicating a complex causal mechanism "In some leagues, evidence is overwhelming that HA declined for both yellow cards and goals. Alternatively, other leagues suggest the opposite, with some evidence that HA increased." (p. 20) |
Correia-Oliveira (2021)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Overall home advantage was significantly decreased "Our results suggest that the break due to the COVID-19 pandemic during the 2019/2020 season was detrimental to most teams playing at home without crowd support, with a strong relationship between home advantage and team quality." (p. 6) |
Hill (2021)* | Reduced home advantage: In ghost games, performance of home teams (goals scored) decreased and referees decided less favorable for the home team "We conclude that the home field advantage may indeed be lost when spectators are absent. However, in future studies, more detailed behavioral analyses are needed to determine the robustness and the behavioral determinants of this phenomenon across leagues and countries." (p. 1) |
Almeida (2021)* | No change in home advantage: Overall, the home advantage did not decrease considerably (points won) in European leagues in ghost games, however it depends from league to league "Overall, the HA did not significantly decrease in European leagues (from 16.4% to 11.6%; trivial effect size [ES]); however, a one-sample t-test revealed that the HA after the COVID-19 break was significantly greater than 0% (small ES). While the HA completely disappeared in the Bundesliga (large ES), its effects remained stable in La Liga (small ES), Premier League and Primeira Liga (trivial ES), and even increased in Serie A (medium ES) after the return. Home teams’ performances in these leagues were influenced to different extents by the COVID-19 situation, especially by playing behind closed doors." (p. 693) |
Leitner (2021a)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Referees perceived less social pressure from the home crowd in ghost games—resulting in more yellow cards for the home teams, regardless from the course of the game—leading to the dissolvement of the home advantage effect “There are two main findings. First, home teams were booked significantly more often with yellow cards for committing fouls in ghost games. Most importantly, this effect was independent of the course of the games. In contrast, bookings for other reasons (criticism and unfair sportsmanship) changed similarly for both home and away teams in ghost games. Second, the overall home performance and home advantage effect in the respective elite leagues–identified in the respective matches of the regular 2018/19 season–vanished in the ghost games of the 2019/20 season.” (p. 1) |
Konaka (2021) | Reduced home advantage: Overall, home teams win less games in ghost games, but effect differs between leagues "More simply, the home advantage became smaller when the games were conducted behind closed doors" (p. 9) |
Cross (2020) | Strongly reduced home advantage: Ghost games reduce the chance of home wins due to less scored goals "We find that the absence of fans leads to 57% decrease in home field advantage as measured by home minus away goals, with the estimated home effect decreasing from 0.387 to 0.167 goals per game. The absence of fans leads to a 68% decrease in home minus away expected goals, indicating that these changes in home field advantage are not driven by better or worse finishing but are instead indicative of changes in chance creation." (p. 14) |
Krawczyk (2020) | No change in home advantage: The effect of reduced home field advantage during the COVID-19 pandemic in the top four European football leagues seems to be a singularity that can only be found in the German Bundesliga "[…] crowds seem to play a limited role in the emergence of home-field advantage in soccer. Indeed, there is some effect in Germany only. We do not have a definite answer why the Bundesliga is special. A sceptic’s answer is that this is a random blip in the data, with the number of games in each specific league being relatively low." (p. 8) |
Ramchandani (2021*) | No change in home advantage: Results indicate no strong evidence to support the existence of the purported "twelfth man" effect in football "The Italian Serie A and the German Bundesliga were the only leagues where any evidence of a significant decline in inter-season HA (between 2018/19 and 2019/2020) or intra-season HA (between fixtures with and without crowds in 2019/20) was found. Overall, there is insufficient evidence to generalize that the absence of crowds affects HA in football." (p. 1) |
Ferraresi (2020) | Reduced home advantage: Ghost games led to a drop in winning points for home teams and halved the home advantage "We find that the performance of the home team is halved when stadiums are empty, with this effect being more marked for teams whose attendance rate was very high and for those that do not have international experience." (p. 1) |
Fischer (2021)* | Slightly reduced home advantage: Decrease of home advantage in ghost games is best explained by the low occupancy rate in the stadia, the effect is less dramatic for teams with low occupancy rates in general "We find that there is a reduced home advantage in the first [German] division, whereas no change is observed in the second and third divisions […] Hence, the decrease in occupancy to zero at the ghost games has been less dramatic for teams that have been used to low occupancy rates. We cannot find strong evidence for a change in referee behavior or teams’ tactics as main impact channels of occupancy rates on the home advantage. Hence, we argue that psychological reasons are of higher importance." (p. 1) |
Ferraresi (2021)* | Reduced home advantage: Home teams miss more penalties when played behind closed doors, especially when attendance was high before lockdown; away teams are less likely to miss penalties behind closed doors, especially when attendance was high before lockdown "[…] social environment affects the performance of individuals. […] in the absence of audience, away teams are less likely to choke on a penalty kick, especially in stadiums that before the Covid-19 outbreak used to be very crowded. These results are consistent with recent findings that suggest that football team performances are negatively affected by the forced absence of friendly audiences […]. What all of this seems to indicate is that both supportive audience and the size of the support play a key role for success of skill tasks." (p. 4) |
Rovetta (2021)* | Reduced home advantage: Results indicate statistical evidence supporting the crowd’s impact on sports and refereeing performance in Serie A "During the anti-COVID-19 restrictive measures […] a net reduction in the points collected by the teams in home matches was detected. […] In addition, the number of penalties awarded against home teams has increased significantly, approaching the ideal 50%. Since there are valid psychological reasons in the literature to support the crowd’s impact on sports and refereeing performance, it is plausible that our findings are causally related to the absence of cheering." (p. 7) |
Dilger (2020) | Reduced home advantage: In ghost games, the referee bias disappears explaining the decrease of home advantage, while no changes in performance can be observed "Comparing these [ghost] games with the regular ones between the same teams before, we find that the normal advantage for the home team disappears. One reason for this is the disappearances of the home bias of the referees whereas changes in the sportive performance of the teams seem to be irrelevant in this regard." (p. 1) |
Link (2021)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Empty stadiums have reduced home advantage and decreased referee bias "The absence of crowds has erased home advantage in the Bundesliga, reduced home advantage in Bundesliga 2 regarding performance level and increased the neutrality of refereeing decisions when giving yellow cards." (p. 10) |
Matos (2021)* | No change in home advantage: Analysis of ghost games in the Portuguese league shows no considerable change in home advantage but statistical methodology / approach plays a considerable role when estimating this effect "Overall, despite what might be expectable from recent findings, the lack of an audience in the last 10 rounds of Portuguese Football League 2019–2020 season, due to COVID-19 pandemic, did not affect home advantage." (p. 1) |
Tilp (2020*) | Strongly reduced home advantage: Analysis of ghost games in the German league shows a considerable change in home advantage "[…] the Covid-19 lock-down led to a home disadvantage. One reason for this surprising result could be that the home team is missing an important familiar aspect when playing in their empty stadium without social support from their home audience. Furthermore, both teams know about the HA thus the away team could be more motivated in this unusual situation." (p. 1) |
Santana (2021)* | Strongly reduced home advantage: Some game and performance indices changed considerably (pass accuracy and fouls committed) while other factors decreased for home teams (sprints) and overall, home advantage decreased significantly in ghost games “[…] the two-month break due to COVID-19 world pandemic in the Bundesliga changed some aspects of the game, such as sprints, fouls and moments when goals were scored. Although, a high number of match variables were slightly favorable to home teams, their home advantage was lost.” (p. 5) |
Endrich (2020)* | Reduced home advantage: Referees punish home teams equally as away teams during ghost games, which could be caused by the missing of pressure from the stands and reducing the home bias "We find that pre-Covid19 referees gave fewer fouls and yellow cards for the home team relative to the away team. These differences in fouls and cards changed during the ghost matches so that home teams were treated less favorably than before. This effect is concentrated in matches where support for the away team is particularly weak. The results provide evidence for a home bias in referee decisions through social pressure." (p. 1) |