11.1 Background Information
Qatar is surrounded by the Arabian Gulf, while it shares its only land border of about 60 km with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and it is classified as a hyper-arid environment (Aridity Index—A.I. <0.05) (UNEP, 1992). The World Bank classified Qatar as one of the wealthiest countries in terms of GDP per capita, ranking among the top ten wealthy countries in the world. This prosperity has been driven by revenues from fossil fuel exports. The country’s economy is highly dependent on oil and gas production which accounts for more than 50% of GDP, 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues (MOFA, 2021). The land surface is dominated by Eocene limestone and gypsum rocks with very little soil. The available soil is characterized by high salinity, mainly in coastal areas, and areas with heavy irrigation application using saline groundwater. Qatar largely consists of flat rocky surfaces, with some hills reaching an altitude of 100 m above sea level. Nearly, all of the country’s land is sandy desert covered with scrub plants and loose gravel. Shifting sand dunes, with an average height of about 40 m, are found in the southern part of the country and on the northeastern coast near Ras Laffan. The climate in the peninsula is an arid climate, characterized by high temperature in the summer (as high as 50 °C), with very mild winters and the common wind is moist and blows from the north-west, more frequently in the summer months. The temperature averages around 17 °C in both spring and autumn months and precipitation in the winter is scarce with less than 100 mm annually (World Bank, 2022). Most water supply resources are affected by climatic conditions and are mainly determined by precipitation. This phenomenon is evident in arid regions where precipitation is less than evaporation, and the availability of freshwater from natural resources is limited. The Countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are no exception, as they are located in an arid zone, they are endowed with few water resources, and they have experienced tremendous economic and population growth over the past few years. This growth has led several countries to search for alternative water resources. For example, seawater is one alternative that is not affected by climatic conditions, and it has a substantial potential to supply freshwater in dry regions. Removing salts from seawater is a process known as “desalination.” Despite the incredible development in desalination technologies, Qatar’s natural freshwater resources are highly depleted, and the country’s water security is currently one of the key pillars of Qatar’s agenda for sustainable development. Reduction of water subsidies, diversification of the water resources portfolio, and R&D in the water sector are crucial steps for a more sustainable water governance. In this chapter, the challenges and opportunities revolving around Qatar’s water management will be reviewed. In Sect. 11.2, the main challenges of the water sector are outlined; in Sect. 11.6.2 the economic development and the climate change objectives linked with the water resources are highlighted. In Sects. 11.3 and 11.4, a brief outline of water resources status and water demand is presented. Sections 11.5 and 11.6 highlight the current country’s strategy and the planned efforts toward sustainability in the water sector, respectively, while Sect. 11.7 also includes the policy implications of the future plans and strategies toward sustainability.
11.2 Water Sector Challenges
The lack of surface renewable freshwater sources, with the only natural resources being the fossil aquifers, makes Qatar severely constrained by water scarcity. Alongside erratic precipitation, high temperature, and evapotranspiration the water resources’ portfolio is limited to three main sources: brackish groundwater, seawater desalination, and treated sewage effluent. As such, the water sector faces several challenges, which interest different actors and distinct levels of the water governance system. Given the resources constraints, the increasing demand for water presents a matter of contention, as does limited groundwater resources, while desalination activities remain energy intensive and directly affect other sustainability aspects of the water sector. These three main issues are briefly outlined in this sub-section.
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Water demand increase: Fast industrial and economic development as well as population growth creates competition among water users and sectors. The water demand has risen steadily, reaching 1.9 million m3 in 2019 and this number is expected to grow up to 2.2 million m3 in 2022 (Kahramaa, 2022). In addition, the country has one of the highest levels of domestic water consumption globally, of about 430 L of water per person per day (Ismail, 2015), a figure which is a mean estimate from the municipal desalinated water production (approx. 600 L/capita/day) and the wastewater treated (approx. 250 L/capita/day). The government highly subsidizes both water and electricity for its citizens and residents, and therefore there are not many economic incentives in place to decrease such demand while from a behavioral perspective, more initiatives should be promoted to reduce consumption.
Groundwater resources: This water source is heavily relied upon to meet the needs of the agricultural sector. The fossil aquifers are mainly recharged through limited rainfall and underground water flow from Saudi Arabia. The rate of exploitation exceeds by three to five times the rate of replenishment (Baalousha, 2016; Planning & Statistics Authority, 2018a), making the use of these resources unsustainable. Aquifer over-abstraction poses risks not only in terms of water availability, i.e., quantity, but it also allows for seawater and saline intrusion, further deteriorating quality. At the same time, extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides can further pollute the groundwater through percolation.
Seawater Desalination: As the main source for municipal water supply, desalination is critical to the water system. The first plant was established in 1953, with a capacity of 682 m3/day (Kahramaa, 2022). Currently, there is a total eleven desalination plants plus two under construction, of which one will be finalized in 2022 and the other in 2027 (for more details see Table 11.1, Sect. 11.3). Still, real and apparent water losses in the network cause a volume decrease. In order to overcome this issue, Kahramaa (Qatar General Electricity and Water Company, responsible for distribution and billing for both water and electricity in the country) has invested, since the first National Development Strategy (NDS-1) 2011–2016, in decreasing the rate of water leakage and loss in the desalinated water network. Currently, the real loss is ~5.28%. Along with the dependence on desalination, water storage is also a major concern. As of 2022, Qatar has only two days of strategic water stock in the network in case of an accident. To overcome this challenge, the country is developing a mega reservoirs project that will increase the water storage network to seven days. The first phase, which started in 2015, consists of building 24 concrete reservoirs by 2026, with a total storage volume of about 10 million m3. The second phase, targeted to 2036, will add further storage, reaching 40 concrete reservoirs for ~17 million m3 of water storage (Kahramaa, 2020). Another major challenge associated with the desalination processes is the production and consequently the management and disposal of the brine. Brine is the main by-product of all the desalination processes and its amount depends on the water source that needs to be desalinated. Usually, in seawater desalination plants the brine constitutes approximately 50–60% of the quantity of seawater that is pumped from the sea, while in brackish desalination plants the brine constitutes between 15 and 30% of the brackish water pumped to the desalination plant. Regardless of the source, brine has a negative environmental impact and must be disposed of appropriately (Ogunbiyi et al., 2021). Qatar, together with Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Kuwait account for 55% of the total global share of brine production, with Qatar having a 5.8% share (Jones et al., 2019). Strategies for improving brine management and disposal to reduce the negative externalities as well as its economic costs need be considered and implemented to decrease the impacts of desalination processes. Lastly, desalination plants mainly rely on fossil fuels for co-generation of water using the heat from gas turbines. As such, the water sector still has a considerable carbon emission footprint and in order to contribute to the national target of emission reduction of 25% by 2030, shall look toward the use of renewable energies for powering the desalination plants.
Table 11.1
Municipal desalination plants in Qatar (Gulf Times, 2021)
No | Plant | Location | Commissioning year | Ownership | Technology used | Capacity (MIGD) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Ras Abu Fantas | Al Wakrah | 1977–98 | QEWC | MSF | 55 |
2 | Ras Abu Fantas B2 | Al Wakrah | 2008 | QEWC | MSF | 29.2 |
3 | Dukhan | Dukhan | 1997 | QEWC | MED | 2 |
4 | Ras Abu Fantas A1 | Al Wakrah | 2010 | QEWC | MSF | 45 |
5 | Ras Abu Fantas A2 | Al Wakrah | 2015 | QEWC | MSF | 36 |
6 | Ras Abu Fantas A3 | Al Wakrah | 2016 | QEWC | RO | 36 |
7 | Ras Laffan A | Ras Laffan | 2003–04 | Ras Laffan Power | MSF | 40 |
8 | Ras Laffan B | Ras Laffan | 2006–08 | Qatar Power | MSF | 60 |
9 | Ras Girtas | Ras Laffan | 2010–11 | Ras Girtas Power | MED | 63 |
10 | Umm Al Houl | Umm Al Houl | 2016–17 | Umm Al Houl Power | MSF RO | 76 60 |
11 | Pearl of Qatar | Doha | 2008 | United Development Company | RO | 8.7 |
In Construction and Pipeline Projects | ||||||
1 | Umm Al Houl | Umm Al Houl | 2021–22 | Umm Al Houl Power | RO | 64 |
2 | Ras Abu Fantas A4* | Al Wakrah | 2024–27 | QEWC | Unknown | 100 |
11.3 Water Resources Status
Qatar’s only natural freshwater resources are rainfall and groundwater. The country does not have surface water and the solely natural freshwater available is coming from the fossil transboundary aquifers. Qatar is currently relying heavily on desalination for meeting the needs of the municipal and industrial sectors, while the groundwater resources are employed in the agricultural sector for crop irrigation and cooling; lastly, the treated sewage effluent (TSE) is used mainly for landscaping purposes and fodder irrigation. The cheap energy prices (and lack of natural freshwater resources) make the desalinated water the preferred and main water resource for the country. At the same time, this comes at environmental costs in terms of marine pollution and carbon emissions. On the other hand, water portfolio diversification should become a pillar of the new water sector strategy shifting away from groundwater extraction and toward higher value uses of TSE and treated produced water (TPW) from the oil and gas industry, as well as the adoption of the latest most energy efficient desalination technologies, and coupling desalination with renewable energies.
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Qatar’s groundwater mainly feeds the agricultural sector (Baalousha & Ouda, 2017). Several formations overlap constituting the different aquifers of Qatar. The Dam and Dammam Formations constitute the top layers, with shallow aquifers. Below, the Rus Formation developed during the Lower Eocene, while the Umm er Radhuma Formation, belonging to the Paleocene represent the deeper aquifer with the most saline content. The main basins are the northern, central, and southern basins, which present salinity levels from low to high while progressing toward the South. The Northern Basin has a salinity of 500 to 3000 ppm and up to 10,000 near the coastal areas (drinking and crop irrigation water should be <200–400 ppm). It covers ~19% of Qatar at 10–40 m of water depth. The Southern Basin covers about half of the country and is also moderately saline.
The groundwater safe yield (amounts of groundwater withdrawn from a basin over a period of time without exceeding the long-term recharge of the basin) amounts to approximately 56 million m3 per year. However, the current groundwater abstraction reached just over 250 million m3 per year, leading to depletion of aquifers, low groundwater levels, and increased salinity. The total increase in stocks (total recharge from rainfall, inflow from Saudi Arabia, artificial recharge, and irrigation returns) increased from 108 million m3 in 2008 to 258 million m3 in 2019. However, the water balance decrease remained relatively unchanged between 267 and 269 million m3 per year for the same period. Consequently, there has been an annual water deficit ranging from 166 million m3 and 11 million m3 during the period 2008–2019 (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2021a). The artificial recharge and irrigation returns represent the largest source of additions to water reserve. The decrease in water reserve is attributed to the water withdrawal for agricultural purposes.
Until the 1970s, most of the desalination plants installed were based on thermal desalination processes. The main technologies available in the desalination sector are multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation and multi-effect distillation (MED), and membrane-based processes, such as reverse osmosis (RO) (Table 11.1). While at the beginning of the desalination development MSF was preferred due to the availability of cheap fuel and the high salinity of the feed water in the Gulf, recently RO is becoming increasingly employed due to its lower costs of production, lower energy consumption, lower temperature brine, and higher recovery rates (i.e., less rejected brine output and therefore better environmental standards). Of key benefit is the ability to utilize PV electricity directly to operate the plant, no longer relying on co-generation electricity and water plants. In 2020, the desalinated water produced in Qatar among the Independent Power and Water Producers, namely QEWC, Ras Laffan, Umm Al Houl and The Pearl amounted to 691.5 million m3, which translates into ~50 to 63 million m3 of water per month (Kahramaa, 2021). The current landscape of municipal desalination in Qatar is outlined in Table 11.1.
While RO is indeed lower energy demand than traditional thermal desalination plants, research efforts are ongoing to improve efficiencies in the thermal desalination sector. This is particularly important for Qatar; as the seawater characteristics of high salinity (up to 57,000 in the west of Qatar) and high boron content pose a particular challenge to seawater RO. Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) has implemented a multi-effect distillation pilot plant at Dukhan on the west coast which is currently producing 25,000 L/day of freshwater, and exhibiting up to a 22% reduction in unit water cost (with up to 40% improvement in energy efficiency) in comparison with that of a conventional Thermal Vapor Compressor along with Multi-Effect Distillation (MED-TVC) desalination plant. This is based on improvements in feed and pumping energy efficiencies as well as implementation of an absorption vapor compressor, and also a reduction in the plant footprint and capex by virtue of the innovative design features. The innovation roadmap includes the transition to power the plant using solar PV (Aly et al., 2021, 2022).
TSE is the only water source that is in surplus in the country (and only in the winter, currently not meeting the demand in summertime). This water is primarily used for fodder irrigation but can play a more significant role, especially for industrial use. Ashghal, the Public Works Authority, is responsible for the design, construction, operation, and management of all major infrastructural projects in Qatar, including the wastewater and sewage drainage and treatment. The use of TSE for fodder started in 2004 at 5% and increased to 16% in 2013 (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2018a). In 2015, the TSE volume was ~194 million m3, which corresponds to 98.2% of total wastewater. Of these, ~66 million m3 were used in the agricultural sector (fodder), ~31 million m3 for landscape irrigation, and ~57 million m3 in deep injection of non-freshwater aquifers. The remaining 40 million m3 were instead discharged into lagoons (General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2011; Planning & Statistics Authority, 2018b). Already in 2017, TSE reuse rose to 229 million m3 and only about 15% was discharged into lagoons unused, while in 2019, it further declined to below 12%, while usage in green space and agriculture increased by about 1% in each (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2019). This indicates that there is a possibility to make a better and more sustainable use of these resources. For example, the change in regulation to manage TSE has attracted additional industries beside agriculture to utilize this resource. District cooling industry utilizes TSE to reduce capital and operational expenditures, while decreasing the demand on fresh water.
Similarly, produced water (PW) is the major wastewater stream generated in the oil and gas industries and while one of the challenges of this industry is to reduce the PW water volumes injected in the disposal wells to achieve long-term reservoir sustainability, due to the needs of diversification of water sources within Qatar, alternative uses for this resource could potentially be helpful for the future of the water sector, with the implementation of appropriate treatment strategies for reuse.
11.4 Water Demand
Rising population and economic growth are commonly associated with increasing water demands. The chief driving factors of water demand and its availability are population growth, climate conditions, water tariff, economic status (i.e., GDP), creeping urbanization, and water regulations such as metering. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that freshwater resources are susceptible and could be impacted significantly by climate change, with broad-ranging implications on the different sectors. The newly published report (IPCC, 2022) further suggests, with medium to high confidence, that the projected water cycle changes will affect agriculture, energy production, and urban water uses. In particular, worldwide depletion of non-renewable groundwater storage will increase due to higher water demand.
One approach that has been applied to rationalize water demand and secure supply is demand-side management. This approach has evolved as an important component of a total water cycle management approach and complements the supply management side. In other words, any actions that result in reducing the amount of water used or allowing water to be used more efficiently are part of the water demand management approach. It is worth noting that in the past, the focus was mainly on the supply side, where the concern was to build infrastructure to collect, purify, transport, and recycle water. The recognition that water demand should be tackled from both sides of supply and demand is essential to better understand the scope of the challenge and better inform the policymaking process. The significance of water demand management is indicated by the IPCC as a “no-regrets option” to manage growing demand in the face of climate change effects (Bates et al., 2008). Demand-side management is differentiated from supply-side management in that it concentrates on the amounts and forms of water used by consumers (Bates et al., 2008; Brooks, 2006). This way, demand management includes as much attention on water use behavior as it does on technology or infrastructure (Baumann et al., 1984; Brooks, 2006).
In Qatar, as it is the case for the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, sustaining water resources has been a concern due to the lack of freshwater resources and high dependency on energy-intensive alternatives such as desalination. The country developed a 30-year master plan in 2009, which accounts for mega-investment in desalination plants, wastewater treatment plants, and other water infrastructure projects, equivalent to more than 5 billion USD between 2010 and 2015. On the other hand, and from a demand side, the agricultural industry and the government sectors are regarded as the largest water users (Kamal et al., 2021). In 2015, the water used in agriculture amounted to 230 million m3 abstracted from groundwater, while 66.29 million m3 from treated wastewater. The industrial sector, which accounts for mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and water and construction, relies on three main sources of freshwater: the water supplied by Kahramaa (desalinated seawater), desalinated water from groundwater wells (usually for the agricultural sector), and seawater desalinated by the industrial establishment itself (these latter type of data are not available). In 2019, the total water use for this sector, excluding the desalinated industrial water, amounted to 34.18 million m3. In the same year, the water use in the commercial/municipal sector, which is solely supplied by Kahramaa, amounted to 85 million m3. The water use in the government sector that includes both waters supplied by Kahramaa and TSE used for the irrigation of green spaces, was ~156.65 million m3 in 2019. Lastly, the water use in the domestic sector in 2019 amounted to 291.10 million m3 (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2021a).
Considerable effort has been devoted to meeting water demand, and demand management is considered a crucial element in the government’s sustainable development vision, which focuses on managing demand for water by maximizing its efficiency, controlling leaks, and optimizing its use. The current water strategy along with the country’s vision has placed clear structures to focus on developing, exploring, and employing environmentally sustainable techno-economic viable, and socially acceptable options to meet water demand.
11.5 Qatar’s Water Strategies
Both NDS-1 and NDS-2 along with the QNV 2030 plans have strong focus on water security and water sector sustainability. Through these overarching frameworks, over the past decade, Qatar has highly invested in developing sustainable strategies for the water sector, improving water network and infrastructure, enhancing sustainable water use and launching water awareness and conservation campaigns. The QNV 2030, launched in 2008, defines the long-term development outcomes for Qatar along four interrelated pillars: human, social, economic and environmental development. The document also outlines a framework within which different plans and strategies can be prepared and implemented. The main goal is to achieve balance between development and natural resources conservation for future generations, i.e., amid the environmental pillar and the other three dimensions. The need for sound water management to sustain the country’s growth despite water resources scarcity is recognized in the vision, and the nation’s Permanent Water Resources Committee (PWRC) mandated the development of the Qatar Water Security Policy and Qatar Water Strategy and Implementation Plan to provide the needed strategic vision and action plan toward a water-secure future.
Looking at water as a human right, and therefore the rights to water and sanitation, the water sector policy is in compliance with QNV 2030 and is able to ensure continuity of water supply and pressure, highest water standards, water storage, and water security for future generations. NDS-1 covers the period 2011–2016 and for what concerns the water sector it first highlights the needed reforms for the sector, which span from leakages and losses in the desalination network, aquifers over-abstraction, and large amounts of wastewater that are uncollected, untreated, and unused. As such, it identifies a range of initiatives to tackle these challenges from technological fixes to reduce network water losses to introducing water savings devices and user charges (initially targeted for non-citizens) that reflect more accurately the full economic cost, or at least the operation and management of the water resources. Changing water consumption patterns in the agricultural sector is also part of the vision, coupled with the adoption of the irrigation technology and crop mixing. Lastly, new regulatory approaches shall be implemented to push for the needed reforms in the water sector. Along this line, a comprehensive National Water Act is elaborated to merge the fragmented system of laws and regulations. NDS-2, outlined for the period 2018–2022 builds on the achievements and the outcomes of NDS-1 to support the implementation of the QNV 2030. In particular, it focuses on developing treated wastewater networks and stimulating its use. There are three specific targets for TSE, which include:
1.
Provide infrastructure to use 70% of the TSE produced in different projects by 2022.
2.
Establish an integrated management of water and of accompanying contaminants in industrial zones by 2022.
3.
Reduce loss of drinking water rate (actual + administrative) to 8% by 2022.
The Third National Development Strategy (NDS-3) 2023–2027 is currently under preparation and will aim at ensuring that such targets are achieved and building also on the efforts of the Voluntary National Review 2021 and the Qatar 2020 Census.
11.5.1 Specific Initiatives, Best Practices
Kahramaa launched the National Campaign for the Conservation and Efficient Use of Water and Electricity Tarsheed in 2012 with the aim of educating Qatar’s community about energy and water conservation, sustainability, and environmental awareness to induce behavioral changes and practices oriented toward environmental-friendly habits and lifestyle. The Tarsheed campaign supports the efforts of preserving and sustaining natural resources for future generations through setting a target for decreasing the per capita consumption of electricity (−10%) and water (−6%) by 2022. The overall goal of Tarsheed is to place Qatar as a regional leader in the reduction of electricity and water by involving citizens, residents, and businesses in reduction practices. The program has several initiatives and mechanisms in place to reach its goals, ranging from awareness and education campaigns, financial incentives, as well as regulations and legal penalties. One example is the Conservation Law No. 20/2015, which halts the use of potable water for car wash or yard cleaning, leaving outdoor lights turned on between 7.00am and 4.30 pm, and neglecting to fix broken or damaged taps and pipes. Tarsheed also aims at providing technical support to the country’s renewable energy efforts. In 2019, the Tarsheed Program contributed to water savings of 33.76 MCM (Kahramaa, 2021). In 2017 Kahramaa also established the Kahramaa Awareness Park (KAP), which is an awareness museum to educate the public about water and electricity consumption, use, and production complemented with the showcase of the latest technologies in this domain. KAP museum is a member of the Water Museums Global Network, which is a global initiative to encourage people to use water responsibly and with respect to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework.
The District Cooling (DC) system is an urban utility service that centralizes the production and distribution of chilled water for air conditioning in different neighborhoods in Doha. This system is developed and often privileged over the traditional air conditioning system as it is more efficient, environment-friendly and helps reducing both water and electricity consumption thus supporting the efforts of Kahramaa in the water resources conservation and sustainability. By the target date, DC is expected to reach its full exploitation by providing the country with an array of benefits spanning from economic, to social and environmental. DC is aiming to reach 100% usage of non-potable water in DC plants, saving 520 MCM of potable water, similarly this will allow 10% savings in potable water capital demand. This effort dates back to 2013, when a ban on the use of potable water in district cooling, which is highly water-intensive, was approved. Ashghal, who is responsible for TSE operation and management has been expanding its network to increase TSE recycling and use for DC. In 2019, DC reduced potable water usage for cooling by 65% with a target reduction of 85% in 2020. In parallel, TSE utilization increased with a percentage of 67% in 2019 compared to 60% in 2018. Further help from DC to Kahramaa entails the implementation of new absorption chilling systems to increase efficiency as well as the utilization of residual heat sources from industry and bio-heat from underground sources.
11.6 Pathways Toward Sustainability
QNV 2030 and the NDSs both recognize the need for sound water management to sustain Qatar’s fast growth despite scarce natural freshwater. Those documents remain a pillar for sustainable development, but at the same time, new endeavors and goals shall be outlined for long-term strategies in the water sector. In particular, in the way ahead, water sector quantity and quality monitoring and assessment should be integrated into the new strategies. Similarly, indicator-based frameworks should be developed from existing ones, and the involvement of the different stakeholders operating within the water sector is the base line for successful strategies and goals definition. In addition, new strategies for achieving a higher level of food security and meeting the increasing food demand shall be coupled with sound efforts toward water resources conservation in the agricultural sector.
11.6.1 Qatar Voluntary National Review (2021)
The Qatar Voluntary National Review (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2021b) shows the progress that has been made in achieving the goals of the Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 and also includes the future work needed to meet the SDGs targets by 2030, which will be aligned with the forthcoming NDS-3. This document is extremely relevant as it collects data and information at the national level on the actual progress and achievement of Qatar for the SDGs, involving several stakeholders from ministries, government agencies, the private sector, NGOs, civil society, academia, and research centers. Looking closer at the progress in the SDGs directly linked to the water sector, for what concerns SDG 2 “Zero Hunger” and in particular the target 2.4, related to ensuring sustainable food production system and implementing resilient agricultural practices has been achieved, and there are several examples of best practices that have been introduced to meet this target, such as the development of smart agricultural technologies (hydroponics and aquaponics) that ensure savings in irrigation and minimize the water usage, also for the cooling system. At the same time, there remain several structural and natural obstacles that hinder Qatar’s agricultural system. First of all, the productivity and the agricultural revenues against the GDP remain low, while water and arable land scarcity remain an issue for the projected food demand. Population growth and urban expansion have led to a higher demand for food that can only be met at the current status through imports. Likewise, natural resource challenges imposed by the scarcity of irrigation water and land can be addressed by the adoption of unconventional practices in food production, such as hydroponics, greenhouse construction, and the use of advanced technologies in agriculture, livestock and fish production. The SDGs 6 “Clean Water and Sanitation” shows steady progress and achievements of the sanitation-related targets, while the use of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation has seen a decline from 86.1 MCM/yr. in 2016 to 61.7 MCM/yr. in 2019 (Planning & Statistics Authority, 2021b). SDG 12 “Responsible Consumption and Production” refers to the achievement of better consumption and production patterns while minimizing the use of natural resources, waste, and pollution. As such, progresses toward water resources rationalization are also captured in this SDG, in particular, toward the minimization of groundwater depletion, reduction in total losses of the drinking water network as well as per capita consumption, and promotion of integrated water and electricity management.
Similarly, the sustainability reporting tools employed by the different public and private companies could be adopted across the entire water sector (not just in Kahramaa) and improved to capture all the aspects of the water realm. This approach could ensure consistent monitoring and data collection and the effective achievement of water resources management targets. Furthermore, it will allow to compile together information and data coming from different stakeholders operating in the water sector, granting that all the relevant aspects are considered and measured against the goals. Lastly, in addition to the alignment to the SDGs, ad-hoc indicators could be developed to respond to policy needs and enhancement in the water realm.
11.6.2 Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Policies
Under a government reshuffle in October 2021, a new Ministry for the Environment and Climate Change (MoECC) was created. This decision came along with the participation of Qatar in the COP26 in Glasgow and further stresses the country’s interests in environmental issues, to achieve comprehensive and sustainable development and that climate change-related policies have new prominence in the State of Qatar. The efforts toward environmental sustainability have been translated into the goals of the Qatar National Environment and Climate Strategy (QNE) (Qatar Government Communications Office, 2022). Such goals spread in different priority areas, but for what concerns the water sector, the aims include:
-
Regular and effective monitoring of all water sources (groundwater, seawater, and potable water).
-
More than 55% desalination from RO or more sustainable technology.
-
60% reduction in groundwater extraction.
-
Reduce and maintain total loss to <8%, real loss to <4%.
-
Conduct a household water survey and develop roadmap to reduce per capita household water consumption by 33% from 2019 level to ~310 L/capita/day.
-
100% of recycled water reuse.
-
Complementary to the very ambitious targets above, one other target from the Land Use priority areas is related to the water realm is: 40% improvement in water consumption/tons of crop produced from 2019 levels.
The actions and goals of the newly created ministry are extremely ambitious and indeed address the majority of the challenges that the water sector is experiencing. Those plans will be realized in collaboration with the efforts of the Ministry of Municipalities and the Environment and Kahramaa, as well with multiple actors within the water sector.
11.6.3 Food Security Strategies Sustainability
While there is a separate chapter in this book covering sustainability and food security (see Chap. 12), since food security is inextricably linked with water, it is worth mentioning here. The geographic and climatic conditions of Qatar hinder the development of standard agricultural practices. Therefore, the expansion of the food supply has relied on imports from foreign markets, which made Qatar’s supply and demand more susceptible to exogenous disruption. Local food production takes a toll on domestic groundwater sources, while importing foods puts pressure on the so-called virtual water sources (i.e., the total volume of water used to produce a specific good in the country of origin of the same). At the same time, the global food crisis in 2008 and the war in Syria in 2011 caused food price spikes and deprived Qatar of key suppliers of fresh fruit and vegetables. As a response to those events, in 2008, the government decided to launch the first National Food Security Program (QNFSP). This program aimed to reduce Qatar’s reliance on food imports through the development of several initiatives oriented toward self-sufficiency, to achieve 40% of food supplied domestically by 2030. The plan included the expansion of the agricultural sector and its endowment with the latest technologies. Despite a few examples of successful implementation of the QNFSP strategies, Qatar continued to depend on imports for a very significant portion of its food needs. The blockade starting in June 2017, however, exposed the country to an unprecedented level of food insecurity. Two years after the beginning of the blockade, a new Strategic Food Security Project for 2018–2023 was introduced by the Food Security Department of the Ministry of Municipality and Environment (MME) (Ministry of Municipality & Environment, 2020). Unlike the first plan of 2008, the current plan is better organized from a logistics perspective and the food security targets are well outlined. The strategy is based on four main pillars: (1) boosting local production; (2) increasing the strategic storage that aims to provide non-produced goods in the country for covering its needs for up to six months; (3) keeping international trade as a cornerstone; and (4) starting local market studies. The new plan has a much shorter time horizon, with objectives to be achieved as early as 2023, and very ambitious autarkic aims. These new strategies were disclosed only in March 2019, although the preparation of these plans started immediately after the blockade. The action plan was rapidly implemented, and local production started to increase, providing again the local market with livestock and vegetables, fruit and dairy products—this time, produced domestically. The increase in domestic food production also increased the pressure on water resources.
Despite efforts in the agricultural sector to increase its efficiency by developing “smart” agricultural technologies such as hydroponic, aquaponic, and aeroponic, at least in the major farms, the pressure on groundwater resources remains high and even if sustainable water uses and reducing net depletion of groundwater are a key aspiration of the food security strategies, this sector still relies heavily on these resources. In order to meet the future food demand requirements, the current food security strategies, set to expire in 2023, need to be updated. The new strategies should include more detailed and targeted research and investment programs for sustainable agricultural management in which food security is developed along with water security and sustainability. Crop selection and diversification of the water sources for food production are the key areas of intervention.
11.7 Conclusions and Policy Implications
Water security and water management are at the heart of sustainable development in Qatar. Their achievement is highlighted throughout the numerous strategies in place since 2008 from the QNV 2030 to the NDS-1 and NDS-2, the future NDS-3 (2023–2027) and the multiple local, regional, and international projects in which the country is involved. Water in hyper-arid environments as Qatar remains high on the political agenda and calls for further actions are needed to move Qatar’s economy and development forward. The impressive achievements in the water sector span from scientific and technological development to policy strategies, regulations, and laws are complemented by a growing public awareness and involvement in water conservation projects by the civil society and the local communities. As Qatar continues to flourish and to aim for greater self-reliance of food production, industry as well as expanding the workforce, further demands on water resources are projected for the future. As such, old and new challenges await, and sustainable solutions should be planned and implemented, targeting a holistic approach that involves all the actors and segments of the water sector. Sustainable water management can be approached from an allocation efficiency perspective, as well as from a societal point of view in terms of quantity and access. At the same time, monitoring and regulations enforcement is crucial, as it ensures water conservation and safeguards that targets and goals are met and accounted, and adjusted along the way should parameters, thresholds, and dynamics change. From a water demand perspective, initiatives to reduce the per capita water demand in the municipal sector should be further encouraged and complement Tarsheed initiatives to push the reduction efforts forward. This would become crucial, especially for the service sector in light of the FIFA 2022 World Cup events and should be realized through a coordinated and collaborative campaign among the different stakeholders. In addition, revision and updates of the current water tariff system, in a way that better reflects the scarcity of the natural water resources and can at least recover the costs of operations and management of the water sector should be encouraged. On the supply side, the actions toward the reduction of leakages and losses along the water network shall be pushed forward together with the technological advancements in wastewater management, produced water management and the infrastructures needed to step up and enhance and diversify the water portfolio. Similarly, a huge potential lies in the desalination sector, which is environmentally unsustainable because of its use of fossil fuels for power generation as well as for the elevated discharge of highly concentrated brine. Lastly, water sector digitalization, which focuses on the integration of the spectrum of digital solutions and technology into Qatar’s water management system can become a key component for water sustainability and the creation of smart cities. To conclude, revision of current KPIs and indicators for the evaluation of water utility operations can pave the way for designing regulatory and managerial incentives to improve performance in the water sector. As of now, Kahramaa’s and Agenda 2030 SDGs appear as the main KPIs, but acquisition and recollection of additional indicators from different actors within the water sector can prove useful for providing more accurate and reliable data and metrics as well as linking together different agents in the water realm to maximize the collaboration, improve service quality, expand water access, and diminish water losses and demand.
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