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2018 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

4. The Protection of Pacific Island Heritage Through the World Heritage Convention Regime

Author : Stephanie Clair Price

Published in: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific

Publisher: Springer Singapore

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Abstract

This chapter analyses the protection regime established by the World Heritage Convention in the Pacific context. It explains how the obligations imposed by the Convention and the structural elements it creates reflect the era in which the treaty was drafted. It discusses key features of the regime that influence the potential for the Convention to be effectively implemented in the Pacific. The chapter then explains how the World Heritage Committee’s approach to conservation has evolved, focusing on (1) the relationship between heritage protection and sustainable development, (2) the rights and roles of local communities, and (3) customary protection of heritage sites. This change in approach has made the Convention regime a better fit for the Pacific; however, significant challenges remain.

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previous chapter The Concept of ‘World Heritage’ and Its Application in the Pacific

next chapter The Listing and Protection of the East Rennell World Heritage Site

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975) (‘World Heritage Convention’).

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.16/01 (26 October 2016) (‘Operational Guidelines 2016’).

Craig Forrest, International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage (Routledge, 2011) 390; Francesco Francioni and Federico Lenzerini, ‘The Future of the World Heritage Convention: Problems and Prospects’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 401, 404.

Guido Carducci, ‘Articles 4–7 National and International Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 103, 115.

Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict, opened for signature 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 (entered into force 7 August 1956) preamble para 2.

Francioni and Lenzerini, above n 3, 404.

See, for example, Edward J Goodwin, ‘The World Heritage Convention, the Environment and Compliance’ (2008–2009) 20 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 157, 158–159; Forrest, above n 3, 227.

Allan Galis, ‘UNESCO Documents and Procedure: The Need to Account for Political Conflict When Designating World Heritage Sites’ (2009–2010) 38 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 205, 208.

Francesco Francioni, ‘The Preamble’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 11.

Forrest, above n 3, 229.

Gionata P Buzzini and Luigi Condorelli, ‘Article 11 List of World Heritage in Danger and Deletion of a Property from the World Heritage List’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 175, 179; Susan Shearing, ‘Here Today, Gone Tomorrow? Climate Change and World Heritage’ (2008) 12(2) The Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy 161, 164; Ian Strasser, ‘Putting Reform into Action: Thirty Years of the World Heritage Convention: How to Reform a Convention without Changing its Regulations’ (2002) 11(2) International Journal of Cultural Property 215, 216–217.

World Heritage Convention preamble paras 3, 6.

Stefano Battini, ‘The Procedural Side of Legal Globalisation: The Case of the World Heritage Convention’ (2011) 9(2) International Journal of Constitutional Law 340, 351.

World Heritage Convention preamble para 7. See also World Heritage Convention art 25; Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 233.

Christina Cameron, ‘The Strengths and Weaknesses of the World Heritage Convention’ (1992) 28(3) Nature and Resources 18, 18.

Natasha Affolder, ‘Democratising or Demonising the World Heritage Convention?’ (2007) 39 University of Wellington Law Review (2007) 341, 342.

Francesco Francioni, ‘The 1972 World Heritage Convention: An Introduction’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 3, 5–6.

The three Advisory Bodies are the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak, ‘Article 14 The Secretariat and Support of the World Heritage Committee’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 243, 260.

World Heritage Convention art 8(3); Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 31.

Barbara Lausche, Guidelines for Protected Area Legislation (IUCN, 2011) 79.

Phillipe Bourdeau, ‘The Man-Nature Relationship and Environmental Ethics’ (2004) 72 Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 9, 9. See also Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, Ashish Kothari and Gonzalo Oviedo, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas: Towards Equity and Enhanced Conservation, Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines 11 (World Conservation Union, 2004) xiv.

Jeremy Carew-Reid, ‘Conservation and Protected Areas on South-Pacific Islands: The Importance of Tradition’ (1990) 17(1) Environmental Conservation 29, 34.

Adrian Phillips, ‘Cultural Landscapes: IUCN’s Changing Vision of Protected Areas’ in Cultural Landscapes: The Challenges of Conservation, World Heritage Papers 7 (UNESCO, 2003) 40, 41.

Adrian Phillips, ‘Turning Ideas on their Head: The New Paradigm for Protected Areas’ (2003) 20(2) The George Wright Forum 8, 14.

UNESCO et al, Managing Cultural World Heritage, World Heritage Resource Manual (UNESCO, 2013) 12.

Ibid., 24.

Ibid., 12.

An exception to this statement is World Heritage Convention Article 13(7), which requires the Committee to cooperate with international and national NGOs with similar objectives to the Convention. This article states that the Committee may call upon public and private bodies and individuals to assist with the implementation of its programmes.

See, for example, Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, opened for signature 2 November 2001, 2562 UNTS 48 (entered into force 2 January 2009) preamble para 10 (‘Underwater Heritage Convention’); Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993) preamble paras 12–14 (‘Convention on Biological Diversity’); Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, opened for signature 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 3 (entered into force 20 April 2006) art 11(b) (‘Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention’) preamble para 6.

Cf Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention art 11(b).

Cf Convention on Biological Diversity art 8(j); Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention art 15.

Josephine Gillespie, ‘Legal Pluralism and World Heritage Management at Angkor, Cambodia’ (2012) 14(1&2) Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law 1, 12.

Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 (entered into force 27 January 1980) art 31.

See, for example, Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict, opened for signature 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 (entered into force 7 August 1956), which says that the protection of cultural property shall comprise the safeguarding of and respect for such property (Article 2). See also the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention, which defines ‘safeguarding’ to mean measures aimed at ensuring the viability of the intangible cultural heritage, including the identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion, enhancement, transmission, particularly through formal and non-formal education, as well as the revitalisation of the various aspects of such heritage (Article 2(3)).

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 96.

Nigel Dudley (ed), Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 2008) 9.

Nara Document on Authenticity (1994) app 2. See Sect. 3.4 for discussion of the Nara Document.

See, for example, Ben Boer and Graeme Wiffen, Heritage Law in Australia (Oxford University Press, 2006) 79–80.

This principle says that ‘the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of future generations’: Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment (1992) s 3.5.2.

Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 775 (Brennan J).

Ibid.

See, for example, Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, paras 3(e), 12, 15(c), 15(f), 49, 98, 99, 101, 103.

See, for example, ibid., paras 8, 78, 96–97.

See, for example, ibid., paras 1(b), 6, 40 refer to protection and conservation; para 5 refers to identification, protection, conservation, and preservation; paras 7, 15(a) refer to identification, protection, conservation, presentation, and transmission to future generations; paras 15(d), 15(g) refer to protection, conservation, and presentation; paras 28(h), 40 refer to conservation and management; para 119 refers to protection, conservation, management, and presentation; para 60(c) refers to protection, safeguarding, and management.

See also World Heritage Convention art 3. For analysis of the duty of identification, see generally Ben Boer, ‘Article 3 Identification and Delineation of World Heritage Properties’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 85; Kishore Rao, ‘A New Paradigm for the Identification, Nomination and Inscription of Properties on the World Heritage List’ (2010) 16(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 161.

World Heritage Convention art 11(1).

Carducci, above n 4, 109; Federico Lenzerini, ‘Article 12 Protection of Properties Not Inscribed on the World Heritage List’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 201, 206; Richardson v Forestry Commission (1988) 77 ALR 237, 245 (Mason CJ and Brennan J).

Francioni and Lenzerini, above n 3, 407.

Tentative Lists have been submitted by Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu: Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) 2.

World Heritage Convention art 5(a).

Ibid., art 5(b).

Ibid., art 5(c).

Ibid., art 5(e).

Ibid., art 5(d).

See, for example, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, opened for signature 2 February 1971, 996 UNTS 245 (entered into force 21 December 1975). This treaty imposes broad obligations on State party only (Article 4).

See, for example, Convention on Biological Diversity art 8; Underwater Heritage Convention arts 10, 12.

Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 46 ALR 625, 698 (Mason J).

Richardson v Forestry Commission (1988) 77 ALR 237, 245 (Mason CJ and Brennan J).

Ibid., 242 (Mason CJ and Brennan J).

Forrest, above n 3, 243.

Carducci, above n 4, 113–114.

Boer and Wiffen, above n 38, 72.

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, part II.F.

See, for example, IUCN, Management Planning for Natural World Heritage Properties: A Resource Manual for Practitioners (IUCN, 2008); Marc Hockings et al, Enhancing Our Heritage Toolkit: Assessing Management Effectiveness of Natural World Heritage Sites, World Heritage Papers 23 (IUCN, 2008); UNESCO et al, above n 26; UNESCO et al, Managing Natural World Heritage, World Heritage Resource Manual (UNESCO, 2012); Thomas Lee and Julie Middleton, Guidelines for Management Planning of Protected Areas (IUCN, 2003); Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend et al, Governance of Protected Areas: From Understanding to Action, Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series 20 (IUCN, 2013).

UNESCO et al, Managing Natural World Heritage, above n 65, 35.

A Heritage Act has been proposed for Fiji, which would provide a framework for the identification, nomination, and management of World Heritage sites: see Heritage Bill 2016 (no. 10 of 2016) (Fiji).

Tullio Scovazzi, ‘Articles 8–11 World Heritage Committee and World Heritage List’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 147, 149.

Bruno S Frey and Lasse Steiner, ‘World Heritage List: Does it Make Sense?’ (2011) 17(5) International Journal of Cultural Policy 555, 557.

World Heritage Convention art 8(1).

Ibid., art 8(2).

Lynn Meskell, Claudia Liuzza and Nicholas Brown, ‘World Heritage Regionalism: UNESCO from Europe to Asia’ (2015) 22 International Journal of Cultural Property 437, 451.

UNESCO, New Zealand http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/nz.

UNESCO, Australia http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/au. Australia was a member of the Committee in 1976–1983, 1983–1989, 1995–2001 and 2007–2011.

Vanuatu and Palau have applied for membership, but their bids were unsuccessful.

Bertacchini and Saccone have found that developed countries have greater capacity to gain membership to the World Heritage Committee than developing countries: see Enroci E Bertacchini and Donatella Saccone, ‘Toward a Political Economy of World Heritage’ (2012) 36(4) Journal of Cultural Economics 327, 334.

The Global Strategy, the Pacific 2009 World Heritage Programme and the Pacific Appeal are discussed in Sects. 1.3 and 1.5.

Christian Reepmeyer et al, ‘Selecting Cultural Sites for the UNESCO World Heritage List: Recent Work in the Rock Islands – Southern Lagoon Area, Republic of Palau’ in Jolie Liston, Geoffrey Clark and Dwight Alexander (eds), Pacific Island Heritage: Archaeology, Identity and Community (ANU E Press, 2011) 85, 86.

World Heritage Convention art 11(2).

Ibid., art 11(5).

Francioni and Lenzerini, above n 3, 407.

World Heritage Convention art 11(3).

Ibid., art 13(3).

Ibid., art 4.

Ibid., art 13(3); Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, annex 9.

World Heritage Convention chapter IV. See generally, Jehanne Phares and Cynthia Guttman, Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions – A Guide to International Assistance, World Heritage Papers 2 (UNESCO, 2002).

World Heritage Convention art 13(4); Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, paras 236–239.

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 239(b).

Ibid., paras 238, 239(e).

UNESCO, World Heritage Fund http://whc.unesco.org/en/world-heritage-fund/.

World Heritage Convention art 13(1); Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 233. An exception to this is that the Committee can provide international assistance to national or regional centres for the training of staff in heritage identification and protection: World Heritage Convention art 23.

See UNESCO, Solomon Islands: International Assistance http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/sb/assistance/.

World Heritage Convention arts 21(1), 24; Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 243, annex 8.

World Heritage Convention art 22; Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 241.

See, for example, Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016–2020 (2016) para 24.

Lausche, above n 21, 76.

UNESCO et al, above n 26, 12–15; Gonzalo Oviedo and Tatjana Puschkarsky, ‘World Heritage and Rights-Based Approaches to Nature Conservation’ (2012) 18(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 285, 287; Phillips, above n 25, 19–20; Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari and Oviedo, above n 22, 1.

Phillips, above n 25, 19–20; Lausche, above n 21, 142; Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari and Oviedo, above n 22, 2.

UNESCO et al, above n 26, 13, 15.

100

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, UN Doc A/42/427 (1987) annex cl 27 (frequently referred to as the Brundtland Report after Gro Harlem Brundtland, Chairman of the Commission).

101

IUCN et al, World Conservation Strategy (1980).

102

World Commission on Environment and Development, above n 100.

103

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, UN Doc A/CONF.151/6/Rev.1 (1992) (‘Rio Declaration’).

104

Agenda 21, Report of the UNCED, I, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (1992) (‘Agenda 21’).

105

Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993) (‘Convention on Biological Diversity’).

106

Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, UNGA Res A/RES/70/L.1, UN GAOR, 70th sess, UN Doc A/RES/70/1 (21 October 2015) (‘Transforming Our World’).

107

Ibid., 22.

108

Budapest Declaration on World Heritage, WHC Res 26 COM 9, WHC 26th sess, UN Doc WHC-02/CONF.202/25 (1 August 2002) 6 (‘Budapest Declaration’).

109

Ibid., para 3(c).

110

Policy for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention, WHC GA Res 20 GA 13, 20th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/20.GA/15 (20 November 2015) 7 (‘World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy’).

111

WHC Res 39 COM 5D, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/19 (8 July 2015) 7; World Heritage and Sustainable Development, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/5D (15 May 2015) annex.

112

World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy, UN Doc WHC-15/20.GA/15, para 2.

113

Ibid., paras 13–33.

114

Republic of Vanuatu, Chief Roi Mata’s Domain – Nomination by the Republic of Vanuatu for Inscription on the World Heritage List (2007) 56.

115

Republic of Palau, The Rock Islands Southern Lagoon Nomination for Inscription on the World Heritage List (2012) 22–23.

116

Elspeth J Wingham, Nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Islands by the Government of Solomon Islands for Inclusion in the World Heritage List Natural Sites (1997) 27.

117

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 6.

118

Ibid., para 132(5).

119

Ibid., para 119.

120

Budapest Declaration, UN Doc WHC-02/CONF.202/25, para 3(c); World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy, UN Doc WHC-15/20.GA/15, paras 1, 9.

121

World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy, UN Doc WHC-15/20.GA/15, para 7.

122

World Heritage and Sustainable Development, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/5D (15 May 2015) para 9.

123

Unlike earlier decisions, the Committee’s 2016 and 2017 decisions concerning East Rennell acknowledge the need to support sustainable livelihood development for the East Rennellese people: see WHC Res 40 COM 7A.49, 40th sess, UN Doc WHC/16/40.COM/19 (15 November 2016) 68; WHC Res 41 COM 7A.19, 41st sess, UN Doc WHC/17/41.COM/18 (12 July 2017) 35.

124

It is recognised that in some contexts there are critical differences between Indigenous people and local communities. However, for convenience, in this book, the term ‘local communities’ is used broadly to encompass Indigenous people, unless the context dictates otherwise.

125

There is no agreed definition of Indigenous people under international law. For discussion, see, for example, Benedict Kingsbury, “Indigenous Peoples’ in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy’ (1998) 92 American Journal of International Law 414.

126

UNESCO et al, above n 26, 13.

127

Matthew Lauer and Shankar Aswani, ‘Indigenous Ecological Knowledge as Situated Practices: Understanding Fishers’ Knowledge in the Western Solomon Islands (2009) 111(3) American Anthropologist 317, 317.

128

Rio Declaration, UN Doc A/CONF.151/6/Rev.1, principle 22.

129

Convention on Biological Diversity art 8(j).

130

Agenda 21, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, ch 26.

131

The Working Group on Indigenous Populations was established in 1982 as a subsidiary organ to the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: see United Nations Office of the High Commissioner (UN-OHC), Mandate of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IPeoples/Pages/MandateWGIP.aspx. The Working Group has been discontinued and replaced by the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 1997: see United Nations Office of the High Commissioner (UN-OHC), Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/Pages/EMRIPIndex.aspx.

132

The Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues was established in 2000 and is an advisory body to the United Nations’ Economic and Social Council: see United Nations Division for Social Policy and Development, Permanent Forum https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/unpfii-sessions-2.html.

133

Convention (No. 169) Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, opened for signature 27 June 1989, 1650 UNTS 383 (entered into force 5 September 1991) (‘ILO 169’).

134

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, GA Res 61/295, UN GAOR, 61st sess, 107th plen mtg, Supp No 49, UN Doc A/RES/61/295 (13 September 2007) (‘UNDRIP’).

ILO 169 art 5.

Ibid., art 7(1).

Ibid., art 16.

Of the independent Pacific Island States, only Fiji has signed it. Furthermore, under Article 1, the Convention defines Indigenous peoples to include (a) tribal peoples in independent countries whose social cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and (b) descendants of people who inhabited the area at the time of colonisation, who retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions (ILO 169 art 1). In most Pacific Island States, Indigenous peoples comprise the majority of the population and government. Therefore, it is arguably not aimed at Indigenous populations in such States: see Erika Techera, ‘Samoa: Law, Custom and Conservation’ (2006) 10 New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law 361, 367.

139

Beatriz Barreiro Carril, ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Participation in Decision-Making in the Context of World Heritage Sites: How International Human Rights Law Can Help?’ (2016) 7(2–3) The Historic Environment: Policy and Practice 224, 227; Erika Techera, Strengthening International Law to Address the Needs of Legally Pluralist Nations, Macquarie Law Working Paper 2010–02 (Macquarie University, 2010) 16.

140

Stan Stevens, ‘Implementing the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and International Human Rights Law through the Recognition of ICCAs’ (2010) 17 Policy Matters 181, 186.

141

UNDRIP, UN Doc A/RES/61/295, art 4.

142

Stevens, above n 140, 186.

143

UNDRIP, UN Doc A/RES/61/295, art 25.

144

Ibid., arts 11(2), 14, 34.

145

Ibid., arts 26, 32.

146

Ibid., arts 9, 10, 11(2), 18, 19, 25, 27, 32.

147

Naomi Deegan, ‘The Local-Global Nexus in the Politics of World Heritage: Space for Community Development?’ in Marie-Theres Albert, Marielle Richon, Marie José Viñals and Andrea Witcomb (eds), Community Development through World Heritage, World Heritage Papers 31 (UNESCO, 2012) 77, 80.

148

Gillespie, above n 33, 12.

149

For example, the Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley was listed with little effective consultation with the area’s traditional owners, the Endorois people. Many of these traditional owners had been previously relocated from the area to create a wildlife reserve and tourist facilities. The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights found that the listing violated the Endorois peoples’ right to development. For discussion, see Peter Bille Larsen, World Heritage and Evaluation Processes Related to Communities and Rights: An Independent Review (IUCN, 2012) 19–20; Harry Jonas et al, An Analysis of International Law, National Legislation, Judgements and Institutions as they Interrelate with Territories and Areas Conserved by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (Natural Justice, 2012) 99–101. Rights violations have also been reported at other World Heritage sites, such as the Chitwan National Park World Heritage site in Nepal (see United Nations Humans Rights Council, Report by the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, James Anaya, Addendum: report on the situation of indigenous peoples in Nepal, UN Doc A/HRC/12/34/Add.3 (20 July 2009) paras 35–37), and Lhasa, Tibet (see Amund Sinding-Larsen, ‘Lhasa Community, World Heritage and Human Rights’ (2012) 18(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 297. For other case studies concerning human rights issues at World Heritage sites, see Peter Bille Larsen (ed), World Heritage and Human Rights: Lessons from the Asia-Pacific and Global Arena (Routledge, 2017).

150

See, for example, Robert James Hales et al, ‘Indigenous Free Prior Informed Consent: A Case for Self Determination in World Heritage Nomination Processes’ (2013) 19(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 270; Stefan Disko, Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in the Context of the World Heritage Convention: The Role of IUCN (IUCN, 2011) https://www.iucn.org/content/indigenous-peoples-rights-context-world-heritage-convention-%E2%80%93-role-iucn; Eman Assi, ‘World Heritage Sites, Human Rights and Cultural Heritage in Palestine’ (2012) 18(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 316; Jukka Jokilehto, ‘Human Rights and Cultural Heritage: Observations on the Recognition of Human Rights in the International Doctrine’ (2012) 18(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 226.

151

See, for example, Report of the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples on its Fifth Session (Geneva, 9–13 July 2012), Human Rights Council, 21st sess, UN Doc A/HRC/21/52 (17 August 2012) 7; Report on the Twelfth Session (20–31 May 2013), United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, UN ESCOR, 12th sess, UN Doc E/2013/43-E/C.19/2013/25 (2013) 6 [23]; IUCN, Implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, WCC-2012-Res-047-EN (2012); UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UNGA 67th sess, UN Doc A/67/301 (13 August 2013) 9–12, paras 33–42.

152

For example, the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) reported that discussions at the 2015 World Heritage Committee meeting in Bonn, Germany ‘revealed strong resistance by many States Parties against adopting safeguards for the rights of indigenous peoples in the context of the World Heritage Convention’. IWGIA noted that a World Heritage Committee meeting member stated, in relation to the nomination of Kaeng Krachan Forest Complex in Thailand: ‘[W]e are here at a prestigious committee of culture and heritage, we are not in Geneva on the Human Rights Council’: see International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), 8th Session of the EMRIP: Joint Statement on Indigenous Rights and World Heritage (22 July 2015) http://www.iwgia.org/news/search-news?news_id=1234.

153

WHC Res 31 COM 13A, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/24 (31 July 2007) 193; WHC Res 31 COM 13B, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/24 (31 July 2007) 193.

154

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 26.

155

WHC Res 31 COM 13A, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/24 (31 July 2007) 193, 193 para 5.

156

WHC Res 35 COM 12E, WHC 35th sess, UN Doc WHC-11/35.COM/20 (7 July 2011) 270, 271 para 15(f).

157

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 123.

Ibid.

Ibid., para 39.

Ibid., para 40.

See, for example, Ashish Kothari et al (eds), Recognising and Supporting Territories and Areas Conserved by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities: Global Overview and National Case Studies (Kalpavriksh, and Natural Justice, 2012) 16; Peter Bridgewater, Salvatore Arico and John Scott, ‘Biological Diversity and Cultural Diversity: The Heritage of Nature and Culture Through the Looking Glass of Multilateral Agreements’ (2007) 13(4–5) International Journal of Heritage Studies 405, 407; K Ruddle, E Hviding, R E Johannes, ‘Marine Resources Management in the Context of Customary Tenure’ (1992) 7 Marine Resource Economics 249, 250; Marjo Vierros et al, Traditional Marine Management Areas of the Pacific in the Context of National and International Law and Policy (United Nations University, 2010) 7; David J Doulman, ‘Community-Based Fisheries Management: Towards Restoration of Traditional Practices in the South Pacific’ (March 1993) Marine Policy 108, 108; R E Johannes, ‘Traditional Marine Conservation Methods in Oceania and their Demise’ 9 (1978) Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 349, 350.

162

See generally Benjamin J Richardson, ‘Environmental Law in Postcolonial Societies: Straddling the Local-Global Institutional Spectrum’ (2000) 11(1) Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 1. See also Sect. 2.5.1.

163

See, for example, Stefan Disko, ‘World Heritage Sites in Indigenous Peoples’ Territories: Ways of Ensuring Respect for Indigenous Cultures, Values and Human Rights’ in Dieter Offenhäußer, Walther Ch Zimmerli and Marie-Theres Albert (eds), World Heritage and Cultural Diversity (German Commission for UNESCO, 2010) 167. Disko argues that the Operational Guidelines should require the full and effective participation of Indigenous peoples in the identification, nomination, management, and protection of World Heritage: at 174. See also Carril, above n 139.

164

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, part IIIB, annex 5.

165

These Are Our Powerful Worlds, Summary Report of the Working Group Workshop on the World Heritage Indigenous People’s Council of Experts (Winnipeg, Manitoba, November 5–8 2001) http://www.whc.unesco.org/document/9474 4.

166

Report of the World Heritage Committee, WHC 25th sess, UN Doc WHC-01/CONF.208/24 (8 February 2002) 57, 57 para XV.5.

167

Lynn Meskell, ‘UNESCO and the fate of the World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of Experts (WHIPCOE)’ (2013) 20 International Journal of Cultural Property 155, 157.

168

World Heritage Sustainable Development Policy, UN Doc WHC-15/20.GA/15, para 21.

169

Ibid., para 9.

170

World Heritage Convention arts 1, 2, 11(2).

171

Ibid., art 11(5).

172

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 78.

173

In this book, the word ‘customary’ is used instead of ‘traditional’: see Sect. 1.6.3.

174

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, part II.F.

175

UNESCO/ICCROM/ICOMOS/IUCN, Preparing World Heritage Nominations (UNESCO, 2nd ed, 2011) 87.

176

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2 (1978) para 13(iv).

177

Ibid., para 8.

178

WHC Res CONF 001 VIII.20–27, WHC 12th sess, UN Doc SC-88/CONF.001.13 (23 December 1988) 5–6; UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised (December 1988) paras 24(b) (ii), 36(b) (vi).

179

Report of the World Heritage Committee, WHC 12th sess, UN Doc SC-88/CONF.001.13 (23 December 1988) 5.

180

Revision of the Operational Guidelines, WHC 12th sess, UN Doc SC-88/CONF.007/12 (9 May 1988) 3.

181

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised (December 1988) para 24(b) (ii).

182

Ibid., para 36(b) (vi).

183

WHC Res CONF 003 XIV.3, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003.16 (31 January 1995) 64–66; UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised (February 1994) para 24(b) (ii).

184

Anita Smith and Kevin L Jones (eds), Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands (ICOMOS, 2007) 120.

185

IUCN, Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 1994).

186

Dudley (ed), above n 37, 8.

187

Ibid., 26.

188

Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend et al, above n 65, 40.

189

WHC Res CONF 203 XIV.3, WHC 22nd sess, UN Doc WHC-98/CONF.203/18 (29 January 1999) 56.

190

Republic of Palau, above n 115, 109.

191

Republic of Vanuatu, above n 114, 96.

192

ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/INF.8B1 (2008) 84 (Kuk Early Agricultural Site, Papua New Guinea, Advisory Body Evaluation 887) 89.

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Title: The Protection of Pacific Island Heritage Through the World Heritage Convention Regime
Author: Stephanie Clair Price
Publisher: Springer Singapore
Book: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-0601-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-13-0602-0

Copyright Year: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0602-0_4