The Soils of Wisconsin

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

There are many definitions for soil ranging from the utilitarian to a description that focuses on material. Soil has been recognized as (i) a natural body, (ii) a medium for plant growth, (iii) an ecosystem component, (iv) a vegetated water-transmitting mantle, and (v) an archive of past climate and processes. In this book, we follow the definition given in the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff in soil classification, a comprehensive system, 7th approximation. U.S, Govt. Print. Office, Washington, DC, 2014, p. 1) that the soil “is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment”.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 2. History of Soil Studies

Abstract

The word “Wisconsin” originates from the name given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquin-speaking American Indian groups living in the region at the time of European contact (Wisconsin Historical Society 2014). The Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks. One leading theory is that the name originated from the Miami word Meskonsing, meaning “it lies red,” a reference to the setting of the Wisconsin River as it flows through the reddish sandstone of the Wisconsin Dells (Fig. 2.1). French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, and calling the River Meskousing in his journal. This spelling was later changed to Ouisconsin by other French explorers, and over time this became the French name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers changed the spelling to its current form when they began to arrive during the early nineteenth century. The current spelling was made official by the legislature of Wisconsin Territory in 1845.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 3. Soil-Forming Factors

Abstract

The expression of a soil results from five factors operating collectively: climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and time (Fig. 3.1). The factors are interacting over time and cause a range of soil processes (e.g., illuviation) that result in a diversity of soil properties (e.g., high clay content in the subsoil). Human activities that result in soil changes are often considered a sixth factor. Following the “Russian school of soil science,” Kellogg (Wisconsin Geological & Natural History Survey 77A. 113, 2004) illustrated the importance of geology, climate, and native vegetation on the distribution of soils in Wisconsin. Nygard et al. (Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 16:123–129, 1952) related the general distribution of soils in the northern Great Lakes region to climate, vegetation, and parent materials. The following is a review of the role of soil-forming factors in the development of Wisconsin soils.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 4. Soil-Forming Processes

Abstract

In the previous chapter, we reviewed the soil-forming factors and how they affected the soils and their distribution in Wisconsin. In this chapter, we will discuss the soil-forming processes. Bockheim and Gennadiyev (2000) identified 17 generalized soil-forming processes and linked them to soil taxa and diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials in Soil Taxonomy (ST) (Tables 4.1 and 4.2) and illustrated them in simple diagrams (Fig. 4.1). They subsequently added two additional processes: cambisolization and pedoturbation. In Table 4.3, we show the dominant soil-forming processes in the seven orders and 16 suborders represented in Wisconsin. The importance of these processes can be seen by the number of soil series and the soil areas across the state. Below we describe each of the ten soil-forming processes that are operative in Wisconsin soils: argilluviation, biological enrichment of base cations, gleization, paludification, melanization, podsolization, base cation leaching, and ferrallitization.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 5. The Soil Regions of Wisconsin

Abstract

Several efforts have been made to stratify the soils of Wisconsin into general regions based on location (northern, eastern, central, southwestern, southeastern, western) and on broad vegetation cover (forested, prairie) and texture of the soil parent materials (sandy, loamy, silty, silty over rock, etc.). In this chapter, we follow this approach, but in subsequent chapters, our approach examines the distribution of soil taxa (orders, suborders, great groups, subgroups, families, and series) and establishes soil regions based on great groups. Here, we will follow the soil regions from Hole (1976) and modified by Madison and Gundlach (1993) shown in Fig. 2.​6.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 6. Diagnostic Horizons and Soil Taxa

Abstract

This chapter briefly examines the distribution of soils in Wisconsin by diagnostic horizons and taxa, beginning with the higher levels and continuing to the lower levels.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 7. Taxonomic Soil Regions

Abstract

Kellogg (1930) divided the state into three broad soil taxonomic regions, including from south to north, the Gray-Brown Forest (Alfisols), Transitional (tension zone), and Podzols (Spodosols) (Fig. 2.9). The soil maps of Wisconsin from 1927 through 1968 (Chap. 2) were based on the associations of soil series. The 1993 map of Madison and Gundlach (Fig. 2.12) was similar to Hole’s 1968 map (Fig. 2.10) except that the legend divided the soils by geographic region.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 8. Alfisols

Abstract

Alfisols are the most abundant soil order in Wisconsin, accounting for 47% of the land area (Fig. 1.2) and 43% of the soil series in the state (Fig. 1.3). The distribution of Alfisols is shown at the order, suborder, and great group levels in Figs. 8.1.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 9. Spodosols

Abstract

Spodosols are the second most abundant soil order in Wisconsin, accounting for 17% of the land area (Fig. 1.2) and 15% of the soil series in the state (Fig. 1.3). The distribution of Spodosols is shown at the order, suborder, and great group levels in Fig. 1.9.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 10. Entisols

Abstract

Entisols account for 12% of the land area (17,014 km²) (Fig. 1.2) and 11% of the soil series of Wisconsin (Fig. 1.3). Soil maps for Entisols are shown for Wisconsin at the order, suborder, and great group levels in Fig. 10.1.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 11. Mollisols

Abstract

Mollisols account for 10% of the land area (14,498 km²) (Fig. 1.​2) and 20% of the soil series of Wisconsin (Fig. 1.​3). General soil maps at the order, suborder, and great group level are shown for Wisconsin in Fig. 11.1. Most Mollisols occur in the southern part of the state.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 12. Histosols

Abstract

Histosols account for 10% of the land area (13,341 km²) (Fig. 1.​2) but only 4% of the soil series of Wisconsin (Fig. 1.​3). There are ten Histosol soil series that occupy more than 400 km² each in Wisconsin. General soil maps at the order, suborder, and great group levels are given in Fig. 12.1.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 13. Inceptisols

Abstract

Inceptisols cover 4% of the land area (5050 km²) (Fig. 1.​2) and 7% of the soil series of Wisconsin (Fig. 1.​3). Maps of Inceptisols at the order, suborder, and great group levels are shown in Fig. 13.1. Inceptisols occur scattered throughout the state but tend to be absent in the southeast part.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 14. Paleosols

Abstract

A paleosol may be defined as a soil that is no longer in equilibrium with the present environment (Ruhe 1965). Paleosols may be buried, relict (remain at the surface as ground-soils), or exhumed (previously buried material eroded from the surface) (Ruhe 1956). Numerous paleosols have been studied in Wisconsin. Early Holocene soils occur in northern Wisconsin on sediments deposited by an advance of ice into the Lake Superior basin 9.9 kyr BP (Clayton 1984).

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 15. Endemic, Rare, and Endangered Soils

Abstract

Hole (1974) was a forerunner in recognizing the need to protect the “wild” soils surrounding our wild rivers. He identified “wild” soils as those which still function as integral parts of native ecosystems. He used the Pine-Popple Rivers basin in Florence County as an example of an area with wild soils. These soils were considered to be “wild” because of their importance in protecting riparian resources. Drohan and Farnham (2006) proposed that rare and threatened soils be recognized in the USA.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 16. Wisconsin Soils in a Changing Climate

Abstract

In the previous chapters, we have shown how much the soils of Wisconsin have been influenced by the past climates that carry a signature in many of the properties and soil profiles that we observe. The glacial periods stand out, but the tropical climate of the Silurian and even the Cambrian left traces in the soils of Wisconsin. In this chapter, we summarize the main climatic influences including climatic projections for the future.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 17. Soils and Land Appraisal

Abstract

Rural land appraisal is based on (i) the productive capacity of the land, (ii) the potential appreciation of a land investment, and (iii) the market value of land (Appraisal Institute 2000). According to one appraiser: “Land holds a unique and pivotal position in social, political, environmental and economic theory. Land supports all life and stands at the center of human culture and institutions … It is nature’s gift to mankind, which enables life to continue and prosper”.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Chapter 18. Current and Future Soil Research

Abstract

The study of soils in Wisconsin is ongoing. All 72 counties of the state have been mapped at a resolution of 1:30,000 or finer. Official soil descriptions and extent maps are available for all 740 series identified in the state. Primary laboratory characterizations are available for more than 1000 pedons in the state. So the soil conditions have been well mapped and there is considerable information available. In this chapter, we will discuss the need to update the information and discuss some ways how this can be done. In addition, we will discuss some soil research areas that in our view need attention.

James G. Bockheim, Alfred E. Hartemink

Backmatter