1. The Somali People: Between Trusteeship and Independence

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri 1962, p. 22.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 57.

Calchi Novati 1993.

In 1885 Antonio Cecchi, explorer and geographer, was appointed by the Foreign Minister P.S. Mancini to accompany Colonel T. Saletta to Massawa on the “Gottardo” for the landing of the first group of expeditionary forces in Eritrea, after a mission to the Congo ordered by the Italian government had been cancelled. In August of the same year he went on a reconnaissance of the mouth of the Juba River and he wrote a report for the Foreign Minister in which he made the objective of his political and diplomatic action in East Africa very explicit: the occupation and exploitation of the Trans-Juba by Italy. This enterprise was not considered opportune by the Italian government, which recalled him to Italy.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 57.

Ibidem, p. 59.

Mohammed Abdille Hassan was a follower of Islam who completed a pilgrimage to Mecca and was an admired scholar of the doctrine. In 1898 he began to organise Muslim warriors whom he called Dervishes (an Arabic word which defines someone who is dedicated to God and the community), in preparation for the fight against Great Britain and Ethiopia to create a pan-Somali state from Ogaden to the Red Sea. His methods ranged from religious conversion to nationalistic appeals and drew on Mahdism. To reduce the pressure of his attacks he was offered sovereignty over Nogal, between British and Italian Somaliland, in 1904, but basically the war dragged on for two decades. Mohammed Abdille Hassan ruled with an iron glove to stimulate his followers and suffocate any internal tensions. No matter how despotic he was, for many Somali his tyranny was for a noble purpose. His advance was stopped by a British offensive. Mad Mullah was not defeated only by British weapons, but also by the conflict between rival tribes. He died a natural death in 1920.

Mahdi literally means ‘well guided by God’ and is a fundamental element of Islamic eschatology; he is given the task of combatting Evil.

Istituto Italo-Africano 1975.

Del Boca 1984.

Corriere della Sera, July 9, 1993, p. 9. From an interview with Angelo Del Boca.

Del Boca 1992.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 86.

Samatar 1989, pp. 79–81.

Morone 2006b, p. 1.

Morone 2006b, pp. 3–4.

Morone 2006b, p. 2.

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri 1962.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 979, fasc. 5

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri 1962, p. 22.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 97.

Morone 2006b, p. 7.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 1005, fasc. 4.

Strangio 2010.

Mohamed Aden 1991, p. 104.

Karp 1960.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 6.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 1.

Barclays Bank provides financial services in more than 50 countries, also in Africa.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 7, pp. 4–7.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 7, pp. 8–9.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 8, p. 6.

See Strangio 2010, p. 39 and n. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Carte Baffi, pratt. 18, fasc. 7, sfasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 976, fasc. 1, “Relazione al Consiglio Superiore in merito alla Cassa della circolazione monetaria della Somalia” edited by Palamenghi-Crispi of the Servizio Studi Economici della Banca d’Italia and dated 11 May, 1950.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 976, fasc. 1, “Schema di lettera della Banca d’Italia al Ministero dell’Africa Italiana – Direzione Generale Affari Politici”.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. n. 548, fasc. 1, pp. 33–38, “VII Convegno Economico Italo Africano, pp. 27–28 aprile 1958 Milan (per iniziativa del Gruppo Vittorio Bottego con l’auspicio dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africa, dell’Ente Fiera Internazionale, della Camera di Commercio di Milano e con la collaborazione del C.E.I.A (Centro Economico Italia Africa))”; ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. 548, fasc 1, p. 47, “La voce dell’Africa Periodico nazionale dell’istituto italiano per l’Africa, a. II, n. 9, pp. 7–13 maggio 1958”. See also Vedovato 1973.

This was to avoid a possible negative psychological reaction from the local population owing to the substitution of a “good” currency for a less “welcome” paper currency with possible problems for exchange operations. ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Carte Baffi, pratt. 18, fasc. 7, sfac. 1 (Letter from the Governor of the Banca d’Italia to the Ministry for Italian Africa, Direzione generale affari politici, which was responsible for the Trusteeship of ex-Italian colonies).

At the time of the Banca d’Italia’s study, the currency in force in Somalia was the East African shilling, whose gold parity was 0,124412 gr. of fine gold.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. n. 537, fasc. 4, p. 77.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 976, fasc. 1, “Currency Boards”; ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Carte Baffi – pratt., n. 18, fasc. 7, sfasc. 1.

These monetary authorities were obliged to maintain a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency. On their functioning and development, especially in the sterling areas, see Biblioteca Baffi B.I., “The Economist”, April 9, 1921, p. 725; “The Economist”, March 4, 1944, pp. 316–317 (East African Currency Board which reported on the currency situation in the territories occupied by the British); “The Economist”, July 20, 1946 on the working of Currency Board in Burma; the report in 1965 East African Currency Board, Report for the Year ending 30th June 1965, pp. 1–20.

On the choice of the name see Strangio 2010, p. 47.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segretariato, pratt. n. 1633, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 998, fasc. 1.

Italian East Africa was the term used for the colonies of Abyssinia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland after the conquest following the Italo-Abyssinian war. Officially the colony was established on May 9, 1936.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 977, fasc. 5; Cassa per la Circolazione Monetaria della Somalia 1966. As a consequence, the decree of the President of the Republic of March 5, 1955 arranged for the share capital, amounting to 87.5 million lire, to be transformed into an endowment fund and handed over entirely to the Cassa by the Italian State.

The agreement was made between Fornari, as representative of the AFIS and Parravicini, representing the Cassa (ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 1).

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 976, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 987, fasc. 1, “Bollettino Ufficiale dell’AFIS”.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 979, fasc. 6.

On April 18, 1950 two of those elected were Giovanni Paravicini, the deputy director of Banca d’Italia’s Economic Studies department and Francesco Palamenghi Crispi, Secretary of the Banca at the Economic Studies department.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 976, fasc. 1, “Statuto sociale della CCMS, Titolo 1 art 2”.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. n. 976, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria, pratt. n. 3017, fasc. 47.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. n. 1007, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 1010, fasc. 1.

It compensates the credits and debts between banks to avoid superfluous payments.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria, pratt., n. 3051, fasc. 1, pp. 49–51.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segretariato, pratt., n. 1008, fasc. 2.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria, pratt. 3017 fasc. 34.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt. 1008, fasc. 2.

Published in the G.U. no. 310 December 15, 1961. Furthermore, the closure of the Cassa was decided, once again by ministerial decree, February 7, 1966 (published in the G.U. no. 98 of April 22, 1966), on June 30, 1966 (ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segretariato, pratt., n. 1629, fasc. 2, sfasc. 6 e ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria, pratt., n. 1636, fasc. 13).

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segretariato, pratt., n. 1629, fasc. 2, sfasc. 3.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi pratt. n. 1006, fasc. 6, Accordo Monetario tra l’Italia e la Somalia, ratified by the Italian Head of State by Law no. 37, January 3, 1963, published in G.U., no. 39 the following February 11.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 995, fasc. 6. See also ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria Cassa pratt. n. 3008, fasc. 8, Pro memoria per il Sig. Presidente della cassa per la Circolazione Monetaria della Somalia; ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Ragioneria pratt. n. 3010, fasc. 6, Lettere e Varie anno 1960.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Studi pratt. n. 1006, fasc. 6, Accordo Monetario tra l’Italia e la Somalia.

This process led to the substitution of foreign with local staff, starting with manual and technical workers, once they had completed a period of training and obtained qualifications; the aim was to encourage a greater awareness and participation of the local population in the activities of the various public institutions in the country.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segretariato, pratt., n. 1636, fasc. 1.

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segreteria Particolare, pratt., n. 474, fasc. 1, sfasc. 8, pp. 22–24.

Two loans were given to the BNS for the Somali government by the Istituto Mobiliare Italiano of 1,000 million lire for Italian and Somali businesses in the cultivation of bananas and 2,000 million for the sugar industry, respectively (ASBI, Banca d'Italia, Studi, pratt., n. 366, fasc. 7, p. 33).

He was the Director General of the BNS from July 1960 to August 22, 1966 and previously Secretary on the Board of the CCMS, nominated by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. He was appointed by the AFIS and the Somali government to work on the economic problems of Somalia. In July 1959 he had been sent by the Banca d’Italia to the CCMS as director general and director of the head office in Mogadishu. Here he was in fact referring directly to the so-called doctrine of Hammarskjold, quoted by Henry Block, the then head of the Technical Assistance Bureau, on a visit to Somalia before its independence. The doctrine stated that the official and economic operators of an ex-colonial country should be removed (the former immediately, the latter gradually) as soon as the country obtains independence and substituted with technicians and operators from other countries (ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segreteria particolare, pratt., n. 474, fasc. 1, sfasc. 8, p. 17).

ASBI, Banca d’Italia, Segreteria Particolare, pratt., n. 474, fasc. 1, sfasc. 8, p. 22.

The term Pan-Somalism refers to the search for the unity of the Somali nation, a fundamental criterion for nationalism based on cultural unity rather than concrete political unity, the only way of contrasting tribalism.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 98.

Calchi Novati 1994, p.131.

Carbone 2005, p.117.

This organization was created in May 1963 at Addis Ababa in Ethiopia and was signed by 53 African states. Its purpose was to promote unity and solidarity among African states, defend the sovereignty of member states, put an end to every form of colonialism, promote international cooperation by referring to the Charter of the United Nations and the declaration of Human Rights and coordinate and harmonize economic, diplomatic, social, health, scientific and defence policies in all the member states of the organization. The supreme organ of the OAU was the Conference of the Heads of State and Government or their representatives who met annually in ordinary sessions. The Conference played basically a political role, took decisions, adopted resolutions and declarations. It had, in fact, the task of discussing problems of common interest in order to coordinate and agree upon the general policy of the organization, review the structure, functions and activities of all the Organs and specialized representative bodies of the Organization and issue internal regulations to make it operative. Calchi Novati 1994, p. 132.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 132.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 136.

The Darod and the Hawiye are two of the main clans in Somalia. Siad Barre was a member of the Darod clan.

Calchi Novati 1994, p. 138.

The WSLF was already active in Ogaden at the beginning of the 1960s and had become stronger or weaker depending on the intentions of the government in Mogadishu.

Derg was the Ethiopian communist military government in power from 1974 to 1987. The name comes from the language of Ge’ez (Semitic language) meaning council and is the abbreviation of the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army.

Del Boca 1992, p. 6

Lewis 1982.

The SODAF (Somali Democratic Action Front) and the DAF (Democratic Action Front) had been founded in the mid-1970s, but their activity had been negligible.

The SNM was founded in London on April 6, 1981 in the presence of about 500 Somali from Europe and the USA. According to its spokesman, the ex-ambassador in Saudi Arabia Hassan Aden Wada, the SNM was fighting to re-establish the ancient neutralism of Somalia and to establish friendly relations with all their neighbours.

. «Le Monde», October 23, 1980.

“Liberazione”, August 1, 2006.

Bersani 1993 .

Unity has also been hindered by the internal contradictions of a society with a political structure based on clan affiliation and a modern state structure as understood by colonial authorities, which in certain periods tried to strengthen the clans in order to limit the prospects of a movement fighting for independence.

Lewis 1980.

Bersani 1993, p. 13.

Lewis 1983.

Aruffo 1994, p. 31.

Calchi Novati 1994.

Mohamed Ali Nur (ed.) (1998).

Battera 1996.

From his unpublished paper Crise d’identitè en Somalie, presented at the First Conference of the European Association of Somali Studies, SOAS, University of London, September 23–25, 1993, quoted in Battera 1996.