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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

3. The WEIZAC Challenge: Building an Electronic Brain in Rehovot

Authors : Leo Corry, Raya Leviathan

Published in: WEIZAC: An Israeli Pioneering Adventure in Electronic Computing (1945–1963)

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter describes the challenges faced by the leaders of the WEIZAC project: the institutional challenge, the human challenge, the material challenge (comprising the bulding of an adequate lab, purchasing the components, and ensuring the budget), the implementation challenge (comprising both building WEIZAC and having it reach the operational stage) and, finally, the scientific challenge, invovling the question of how to make the most of the machine on behalf of the research projects of the institute.

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previous chapter Creating a Top-Rated Scientific Institution in Rehovot at the Dawn of the Digital Age
next chapter Concluding Remarks: WEIZAC as a Zionist Success Story
Footnotes
1
The idea of “building up a sense of inevitability”, as a strategy for developing and promoting a large-scale technological project with significant national implications, was introduced by Yaakov Garb in his account of the planning and building of the Trans-Israel Highway (Garb 2004). It goes without saying, that the Highway and WEIZAC are two very different kinds of projects in terms of scope, costs, political and social implications, and technological complexity and innovation. Certainly, they cannot be explained or comprehended under identical historiographical categories. Still, we find the term “sense of inevitability” to be very suggestive as a metaphor of the strategy followed by Pekeris in the way to the realization of his project.
 
2
SCM held on Jan. 11, 1952 (CPA).
 
3
Pekeris to Bergmann, Mar. 9, 1946 (WIA 3–22–46).
 
4
“The Following Examples”, in the Pekeris-Bergmann correspondence file (WIA 24–74–6).
 
5
Weizmann to Max Brailowsky, Nov. 26, 1947 (LPCW, Series A, Vol. 23, letter 46).
 
6
“Memorandum of Recommendations for the Technical Physics Laboratory,” Oct. 28, 1946 (WIA 23–74–6). The signature in the bottom of this draft document (of which we did not final a final version) is not clear. However, the document opens with the words: “Dear Bergmann, as agreed upon I am submitting recommendation on …”.
 
7
Bergmann, in the Annual Meeting of the American Committee of Weizmann Institute of Science, Inc., Dec. 10, 1947 (WIA 17–2016–5).
 
8
Stern, “Minutes of Part of Planning Committee and Others October 15, 1946, at Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn” (WIA 6–74–23).
 
9
Weisgal, “Report to the Board of Directors of the American Committee and to Committees in Other Countries for the Weizmann Institute for the Period of 1944–1949,” 37 (WIA).
 
10
The first electronic computer used in a commercial context was the LEO I (Lyons electronic office I), which was modelled after the EDSAC and became operational in 1951 in the UK. See Land (2014).
 
11
The five departments listed in this letter are: Department of Applied Mathematics, Department of Optics, Department of Biophysics, Department of Isotope Research, Department of High-Polymer Research.
 
12
Bergmann to David Ginsberg, Nov. 21, 1946 (WIA 5–74–42).
 
13
Bergmann, “A memorandum to Getzoff,” Dec. 2, 1946 (WIA 6–74–24).
 
14
Bergmann to Pekeris, Dec. 11, 1946 (WIA 3–96–25).
 
15
Einstein to Pekeris 1947. The letter is not dated. A copy of the original letter is in (WIA 3–96–45).
 
16
Harry (Zvi) Lipkin (Weizmann Compass). Feb. 4, 2016. https://​www.​weizmann.​ac.​il/​WeizmannCompass/​sections/​people-behind-the-science/​harry-zvi-lipkin (accessed Jan. 14, 2018).
 
17
Vladimir Zworykin (1888–982) led in the 1930s the development of the electronic television system at RCA. In the 1940s the company was also involved in the development of automatic computers.
 
18
Pekeris to Bergmann, Mar. 9, 1946 (WIA 5–74–26).
 
19
Bergmann to Pekeris, Jul. 30, 1947 (CPA Fondiller file).
 
20
Einstein to Camille Dreyfus, 1946–1947. The letter is not dated, (WIA 45–3–96).
 
21
Camille Dreyfus to Einstein, Dec. 30 1947 (WIA 45–3–96).
 
22
Pekeris to Eugene Black, May 11, 1960 (CPA).
 
23
Bergmann to Pekeris, Dec. 11, 1946 (WIA 3–96–25); Bergmann to Pekeris, Jul. 30, 1947 (CPA—Fondiller file).
 
24
Pekeris to Frei, Feb. 7, 1952 (CPA); (Pekeris 1964).
 
25
Pekeris’ name appears in the “Members of the Symposium” list in (Proceedings of the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery 1948. Reprinted 1985, xxv).
 
26
Pekeris to Bergmann, Dec. 11, 1946 (WIA 3–96–25).
 
27
WIS, “Scientific Activity Report 1949” (WIA).
 
28
“Scientific Activity of the Department of Applied Mathematics of the Weizmann Institute of Science during the Period of September 1951 to September 1953” (CPA).
 
29
Pekeris, “A Report on Research Work in the Applied Mathematics Department 1950” (CPA) (Hebrew); WIS, “Scientific Activity Report 1949” (WIA).
 
30
SCM help on May 9, 1950 (CPA). (Hebrew). For details on the role of Dr. Efraim Frei in the project, see below.
 
31
Pekeris, A Report on Research Work in the Applied Mathematics Department 1950 (CPA). (Hebrew).
 
32
Pekeris to von Neumann, Feb. 15, 1950 (WIA 3–96–72).
 
33
IBM's Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator.
 
34
Von Neumann to Pekeris, Feb. 23, 1950 (WIA 3–96–72).
 
35
Pekeris, “A Work Plan of the Applied Mathematics Department for the Years 1951–1954,” 1950 (CPA).
 
36
SCM held on Nov. 22, 1950 (WIA 1–6–76).
 
37
Frei to Pekeris, Sep. 26, 1951 (CPA).
 
38
SCM held on Nov. 8, 1951 (CPA). See quotation bellow.
 
39
Frei to Pekeris, Sep. 26, 1951 (CPA). For more on Frei and the IAS machine, see below.
 
40
Pekeris to Frei, Jan. 8, 1952 (CPA).
 
41
SCM held on Nov. 8, 1951 (CPA).
 
42
Weisgal, “Report by the Chairman of the Executive Council for the Period from November 2, 1949 to Jun. 30, 1952” (draft) (WIA 12–90–17). In this document, Weisgal distinguished between “we, who labor for the Institute as laymen” and the scientists.
 
43
Weisgal to Pekeris, Nov. 12, 1951 (WIA 3–91–102).
 
44
Weisgal to Pekeris, Nov. 12, 1951 (WIA 3–96–102).
 
45
Frei to Pekeris, Jan. 18, 1951 (CPA).
 
46
Pekeris to Weisgal, Nov. 20, 1951 (WIA 3–96–102), Frei to Pekeris, Dec. 5, 1951 (CPA).
 
47
SCM held on Jan. 11, 1952 (CPA).
 
48
Rubinoff to Pekeris, Mar. 11, 1946 (WIA 5–74–26).
 
49
Rubinoff, Interview by Richard R. Mertz, May 17, 1971, (SOVA,1969–1973, 1977).
 
50
Stern, “Minutes of Part of Planning Committee and Others October 15, 1946, at Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn” (WIA 6–74–23).
 
51
“Annual Meeting of the American Committee of Weizmann Institute of Science, Inc., Dec. 10 1947” (WIA 17–2016–5), Weisgal to Pekeris, Nov. 13, 1947 (WIA 6–74–24). Also, Weizmann requested immigration certificates for Rubinoff and his wife in a letter to Alan Cunningham, the High Commissioner of Palestine, Jan. 6, 1948 (CWA2806–18A).
 
52
Pekeris to Estrin, Apr. 7, 1958 (WIA 12–90–79).
 
53
Mordechai Kikion (founder and first commander of IDF Center of Computing and Information Systems), “A Report on the Visit to the US 25.4.1960–30.6.1960” (IDFA 5–327–1965).
 
54
It seems unlikely, however, that Pekeris was aware of Gillis’ cryptographic work during the war.
 
55
Andrew Donald Booth (1918–2009) was an English computing pioneer that worked on the IAS computer project (Computer Pioneers—Andrew Donald Booth, http://​history.​computer.​org/​pioneers/​booth-ad.​html, accessed Aug. 7, 2018.
 
56
Pekeris to Gillis, Nov. 17, 1946 (WIA 6–74–24).
 
57
Before joining the DAM, during the 1948 war, Gillis served in the IDF Intelligence unit. See Nahem Ilan in Pe’amim 122–123, Yad-Ben_Zvi. https://​www.​ybz.​org.​il/​_​Uploads/​dbsAttachedFiles​/​122–123_​Nahem_​Dmuyut_​193–212_​13.​5.​10.​pdf.
 
58
Gillis to Pekeris, Oct. 21, 1956 (CPA).
 
59
“Weizmann Award Laureate 1957,” DAVAR, Jun. 12, 1957, 4. (Hebrew). See also Bacharach (2009, 64–66).
 
60
(SCM held on Feb. 14, 1951.) (Hebrew).
 
61
Pekeris and Frei, Pekeris–Frei correspondence, Dec. 22, 1950–Sep. 25 1951 (CPA).
 
62
von Neumann to Pekeris, Jul. 28, 1949 (CPA).
 
63
“Annual Meeting of the American Committee of Weizmann Institute of Science, Inc. Dec. 8, 1948” (WIA 6–74–24).
 
64
SCM held on Mar. 27, 1951 (CPA). (Hebrew).
 
65
SCM held on Mar. 16, 1951 (CPA). (Hebrew).
 
66
Frei to Pekeris, May 17, 1951 (CPA).
 
67
SCM held on May 28, 1951 (WIA 6–76–2).
 
68
Frei to Pekeris, Jan. 18, 1951 (CPA).
 
69
Frei to Pekeris, Jan. 18, 1951 (CPA).
 
70
Frei to Pekeris, Dec. 5, 1951 (CPA). According to Aspray, “Bigelow’s perfectionist tendencies slowed progress so much that von Neumann had to replace him with James Pomerene in the midst of construction” (Aspray 2000a, 187).
 
71
SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) was an early computer developed at the National Bureau of Standards. It became operational on May 1950. See Kirsch (1998). At roughly the same time, also the SWAC (Standards Western Automatic Computer) became operational in the West Coast (Corry 2008, 40–48). They were the fastest operational computing machines before the IAS computer became operational one year later. Both machines played an important role in the widespread adoption of electronic computing in the USA, both in science and in administration.
 
72
SCM held on Oct. 21, 1954 (CPA).
 
73
“Contribution of the Weizmann Institute to the Advanced of the Science of Electronic Computing Jun. 5,1961” (CPA). See also Davis and Fraenkel (2007).
 
74
For more information on Fraenkel see Scheinerman and Simpson (2001).
 
75
The Hebrew daily press provides plenty of evidence about the active presence of this company in the main cities of the Yishuv, at least since the 1930s. See, e.g., Haboker Feb. 24, 1938; Hayarden, March 05, 1935; Al Hamishmar,Aug. 4, 1944. This information was retrieved from the Historical Jewish Press site, at the National Library, Jerusalem: http://​web.​nli.​org.​il/​sites/​JPress/​English/​Pages/​default.​aspx (accessed Aug. 17, 2018).
 
76
Milton Rosenberg to Pekeris, Oct. 4, 1956 (CPA).
 
77
SCM held on Mar. 25, 1954 (CPA).
 
78
Pekeris to Bigelow, Jan. 15, 1952 (CPA); Weisgal to Pekeris Dec. 27, 1951 (CPA).
 
79
Pekeris to Frei, Aug 27, 1952 (CPA).
 
80
And just to provide the right context for these kinds of difficulties it may be worth mentioning that according to the testimony of R. Narasimhan (1926–2007), head of the TIFRAC project in India, the activation of their computer was delayed for almost a year, due to the lack of air-conditioning facilities (Narasimhan 1960).
 
81
Frei to Pekeris, May 29, 1952 (CPA).
 
82
Frei to Pekeris, Apr. 10, 1952 (CPA).
 
83
See Footnote 81.
 
84
WIS, “Scientific Activity Report 1954” (WIA).
 
85
This list is a combined summary of information appearing in two documents: (1) “List of parts required for the construction of electronic computer”, May 1st, 1953 (CPA); (2) “Tentative list of materials for electronic computer”, 1952 (CPA).
 
86
Getzoff to Bloch, Jun. 4, 1952 (CPA).
 
87
See Footnote 81.
 
88
Pekeris to Weisgal, May 27, 1952 (CPA).
 
89
Hershel Radio Co., invoice, May 5, 1952 (CPA).
 
90
“Three Anniversaries,” Dec. 2, 1954 (WIA subject file: computers 2).
 
91
Ben-Gurion, Diaries—full diary Jul. 1, 1949 (BGA).
 
92
Ben-Gurion, Diaries—full diary Feb. 4, 1952 (BGA).
 
93
Ben-Gurion, Diaries—full diary Jul. 26, 1952 (BGA).
 
94
Pekeris to Frei, Jul. 29, 1952 (CPA).
 
95
Pekeris to Frei, Aug 13, 1952 (CPA).
 
96
As explained in The RAND Apr. 1954, Digital Computer Newsletter, Vol. 6(2), 3–4. See also Davis and Fraenkel (2007).
 
97
Pekeris to Frei, Jan. 8, 1952 (CPA). On the Ferranti computers see Napper (2000), Blachman (1953).
 
98
Pekeris to Frei, Jan. 15, 1952 (CPA).
 
100
Frei to Pekeris, Jun. 13, 1952 (CPA).
 
101
SCM held on Oct. 30, 1951 (CPA).
 
102
UNESCO, “Convention for the Establishment of the Internation Computing Center,” Jan. 7, 1952 (CPA).
 
103
Pekeris to Frei, Jan. 8, 1952 (CPA).
 
104
Israel Trustees Foundation, “First Comprehensive Report.” June 1955, 161–162. (ISA-most-ScienceResearchboard-00070xh).
 
105
The Israel Foundations Trustees was a committee established in the USA in order to recruit foreign funds for scientific research in Israel.
 
106
SCM held on Feb. 3, 1957 (WIA 1976–6–8).
 
107
Pekeris to Frei, Sep. 25, 1951 (CPA); SCM held on Jan. 11, 1952 (CPA).
 
108
A similar conclusion about the lack of involvement of IDF in the financial side of the WEIZAC project is found in (Krauss 1997). Krauss based his research on interviews conducted with the leading physicists of WIS during the 1950s and 1960s.
 
109
Estrin, “Report on Electronic Computer Project,” Mar. 21, 1955 (CPA).
 
110
The report states 36,000 Israeli Pounds. Here we indicate a rough estimation, due to the difference between official and formal exchange rate.
 
111
We found contradictory estimations for this expected cost.
 
112
SCM held on Feb. 3, 1957 (CPA).
 
113
“Scientific Activity Report 1954” (WIA); Rate conversion based on electronic resources of the Bank of Israel: http://​www.​boi.​org.​il/​he/​Markets/​ForeignCurrencyM​arket/​Pages/​shearim48–77.​aspx (accessed Jun. 4, 2018).
 
114
Frei to Pekeris, Sep. 02,1952 (CPA).
 
115
A parallel machine, like the IAS computer, performs an arithmetic operation on all bits simultaneously, while a serial machine performs the operation bit after bit, like the EDVAC, and the operand can be fetched from the memory bit after bit. Therefore, a parallel machine performs arithmetic operations much faster, as long as the memory access time is fast enough.
 
116
Frei to Pekeris, Mar. 24, 1952 (CPA).
 
117
Bigelow to Pekeris, Apr. 22, 1952 (CPA).
 
118
Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010) was a highly distinguished British computer pioneer. He designed the EDSAC, which was model after the EDVAC, but was operational already in 1949. In 1951 he published a seminal paper about microprogramming (Wilkes 1951).
 
119
Weisgal to Hammer (telegram), Sep. 12, 1954 (WIA 12–90–63).
 
120
Estrin to Ridenour, Nov. 12, 1954 (CPA).
 
121
Ridenour to Estrin, Nov. 26, 1954 (CPA).
 
122
Raymond Stuart-Williams, International Telemeter Corporation, to Pekeris, Nov. 29, 1955 (CPA).
 
123
“Scientific Activity Report, 1956–1957” (WIA). We have no detailed information about how Weisgal finally stroke the deal.
 
124
Gillis to Pekeris, Sep. 13, 1956 (CPA).
 
125
“Richard Solomon, Estrin, Weizac and Golem Pioneers”. Video interview (partially supported by the American Committee for the Weizmann Institute of Science 1983 —private copy).
 
126
“Scientific Activity Report 1954” (WIA).
 
127
Aviezri Fraenkel, personal correspondence, Jul. 2, 2013; Segel Lee, “Conversation with Riesel Zvi, Feb. 18, 1987” (HMF).
 
128
“Scientific Activity Report 1954” (WIA). See also Estrin (1991).
 
129
Fraenkel, private interviews with Leviathan, 2009–2013.
 
130
Estrin, “Report on Electronic Computer Project,” Mar. 21, 1955 (CPA).
 
131
Estrin, “Report on Electronic Computer Project,” Mar. 21, 1955 (CPA).
 
132
“State of Computer Jun. 5, 1955” (CPA).
 
133
The term “production” was commonly used to describe the run time of the correct program.
 
134
In Pekeris’ file, “Computer Reports, December 1955” (WIA 3–96–38).
 
136
Pekeris to Estrin, Jul. 5, 1956 (CPA).
 
137
Digital Computer Newsletter, Office of Naval Research—Mathematical Sciences Division, Vol. 7 (2).
 
138
“‘Electronic Brain’ activated at the Weizmann Institute,” Al Hamishmar,Oct. 24, 1955. (Hebrew).
 
139
Scientific activity report 1958–1959 (WIA).
 
140
Scientific Activity Report 1958–1959 (WIA).
 
141
In 1956, the magnetic core memory business of International Telemeter was moved to its new subsidiary Telemeter Magnetics.
 
142
Scientific Activity Report 1960–1961 (WIA).
 
143
Report on Activities During the Period of January–August, 1958 (CPA).
 
144
Scientific Activity Report 1962–1963 (WIA).
 
145
Scientific Activity Report 1965 (WIA).
 
146
WIS press release Dec. 1983 (WIA). (Hebrew).
 
147
This figure was obtained from the journal’s website on March 2017. According to Google Scholar, as consulted on Jun. 25, 2018, the actual number was over 1100.
 
148
This figure was calculated in 2014 by looking at all articles in Google Scholar in which WEIZAC is mentioned’ and by summing up all the amounts indicated in the search results.
 
149
“He” stands here for the symbol of Helium.
 
150
Alterman started her career at the DAM in WIS, and later established herself at the Department of Environmental Sciences of Tel Aviv University, of which he also became head.
 
151
Sullivan, Scientists Detect Earth Vibration. New York Times Aug. 6, 1960.
 
152
Chandrasekhar, a memorandum on the Application from the Weizmann Institute of Science for a High-Speed Electronic Computer 1962 (CPA).
 
153
Yonath, private email communication to Leviathan, Dec. 21, 2011.
 
154
In spring 1960, the Swedish entrepreneur, Axel Lennart Wenner-Gren, supplied WIS with a WEGEMATIC computer, which, however, was significantly inferior to WEIZAC and was hardly ever used.
 
156
“Amir Pnueli-A.M. Turing Award Laureate”; https://​amturing.​acm.​org/​award_​winners/​pnueli_​4725172.​cfm, (accessed Jul. 30, 2018).
 
158
Morphology deals with word formation, and morphological formation deals with grammatical analysis of a word.
 
160
“Using the WEIZAC computer for data processing by the Central Bureau of Statistics”. Lecture before the Department of Statistics, Jerusalem, Mar. 26, 1958 (CPA).
 
161
“Report on computer users”, Feb. 1956 (WIA).
 
162
Lubin, Ministry of Defence, Ordnance Branch, May 19, 1958 (CPA); Pekeris to Remez, Aug. 30, 1959 (CPA); (Shahar 2002).
 
163
E. Erez, “The analog simulator of Machon 3”, 1971 (RADC).
 
164
Meir Lehman, interview by W. Aspray, Sep. 23, 1993. https://​ethw.​org/​Oral-History:​Meir_​Lehman (accessed Mar. 16, 2019).
 
165
T. Lamdan, “Developing digital computer in Machon 3”, Dec. 1967 (RADC).
 
166
Incidentally, WEIZAC was used to simulate the logical design of SABRAC. See Lehman et al. (1963).
 
167
“Report on computer users” (1959, 1960) (WIA).
 
168
Haboker, “Electronic brain in Weizmann Institute,” Feb. 23, 1955.
 
169
Accad to Leviathan, personal communication, Oct. 24, 2010.
 
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Metadata
Title
The WEIZAC Challenge: Building an Electronic Brain in Rehovot
Authors
Leo Corry
Raya Leviathan
Copyright Year
2019
Book
WEIZAC: An Israeli Pioneering Adventure in Electronic Computing (1945–1963)

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-25733-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-25734-7

Copyright Year: 2019

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25734-7_3

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