Introduction
Theoretical framework
Learning engagement and perceived learning outcomes
Learning engagement
Perceived learning outcomes
The expectancy-value theory
Self-efficacy
Task value
Perceived cost
Attitudes
Aim of this study
Methods
Procedure and participants
Measures | Items | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 165 | 71.1 |
Male | 67 | 28.9 | |
Age | ≤ 22 | 181 | 78.0 |
23–25 | 41 | 17.7 | |
≥ 25 | 10 | 4.3 | |
Academic degree | Undergraduate students | 177 | 76.3 |
Graduate students | 45 | 19.4 | |
Ph.D. students | 0 | 0 | |
Other | 10 | 4.3 | |
Discipline of the MOOC learners recently attended | Natural science | 12 | 5.2 |
Humanities & Social science | 149 | 64.2 | |
Medical science | 27 | 11.6 | |
Agricultural science | 2 | 0.9 | |
Engineering & Technology science | 42 | 18.1 | |
Types of MOOCs | Credit course | 160 | 69 |
Non-credit course | 72 | 31 |
Measuring instruments
Attitudes
Self-efficacy
Task value
Perceived cost
Learning engagement
Perceived learning outcomes
Data analysis
Results
Measurement validation
Variables | Measured factors | No. of items used | Factors kept after CFA | No. of item kept after CFA | Example of items | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Attitudes | Attitudes | 6 | Attitudes | 3 | I feel more motivated when I am learning in MOOCs. | Admiraal et al. (2017) |
Self-efficacy | Self-efficacy | 8 | Self-efficacy | 4 | I’m confident I can do an excellent job in MOOCs. | Pintrich et al. (1991) |
Task value | ||||||
Intrinsic value | 7 | Intrinsic value | 4 | This MOOC is interesting to me. | Perez et al. (2019) | |
Attainment value | 4 | – | ||||
Utility value | 4 | – | ||||
Perceived cost | ||||||
Task effort cost | 5 | Task effort cost | 4 | I have to put too much energy into this MOOC. | Flake et al. (2015) | |
Loss of valued alternatives | 5 | – | ||||
Emotional cost | 6 | – | ||||
Learning engagement | ||||||
Cognitive Engagement | 8 | Cognitive Engagement | 5 | When I study this MOOC, I try to connect what I am learning with my own experiences. | ||
Behavioral Engagement | 5 | Behavioral Engagement | 4 | I study this MOOC carefully. | ||
Emotional Engagement | 5 | Emotional Engagement | 3 | When I study this MOOC, I feel curious about what I am learning. | ||
Perceived learning outcomes | Perceived learning outcomes | 9 | Perceived learning outcomes | 4 | I have understood the content and concepts in the subject matter of this MOOC. | Paechter et al. (2010) |
Structural model
Paths | B | SE | |
---|---|---|---|
Independent variables | Dependent variables | ||
AT | → SE | 0.649*** | 0.048 |
→ IV | 0.340*** | 0.069 | |
→ TE | − 0.190* | 0.096 | |
→ LENG | 0.072 | 0.061 | |
→ PLO | 0.140* | 0.063 | |
SE | → IV | 0.409*** | 0.062 |
→ TE | 0.140 | 0.102 | |
→ LENG | 0.166** | 0.063 | |
→ PLO | 0.169** | 0.061 | |
IV | → LENG | 0.587*** | 0.059 |
→ PLO | 0.493*** | 0.063 | |
TE | → LENG | 0.069 | 0.050 |
→ PLO | 0.089 | 0.046 |
Mediated relations
Mediation path | B | SE | 95% CI for indirect effect | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(INV → MV → DV) | BootLLCI | BootULCI | |||
AT → LENG | Total effect | 0.529*** | 0.057 | 0.414 | 0.655 |
Total direct | 0.144* | 0.057 | 0.023 | 0.288 | |
Total indirect: | 0.385*** | 0.047 | 0.301 | 0.510 | |
Specific 1: AT → IV → LENG | 0.393*** | 0.045 | 0.316 | 0.510 | |
Specific 2: AT → TE → LENG | − 0.008 | 0.009 | − 0.036 | 0.005 | |
SE → LENG | Total effect | 0.582*** | 0.053 | 0.472 | 0.711 |
Total direct | 0.197** | 0.057 | 0.088 | 0.335 | |
Total indirect: | 0.385*** | 0.047 | 0.295 | 0.501 | |
Specific 1: SE → IV → LENG | 0.384*** | 0.046 | 0.292 | 0.497 | |
Specific 2: SE → TE → LENG | 0.001 | 0.006 | − 0.007 | 0.028 | |
AT → PLO | Total effect | 0.541*** | 0.055 | 0.424 | 0.673 |
Total direct | 0.214*** | 0.059 | 0.109 | 0.384 | |
Total indirect: | 0.327*** | 0.047 | 0.237 | 0.450 | |
Specific 1: AT → IV → PLO | 0.337*** | 0.044 | 0.254 | 0.451 | |
Specific 2: AT → TE → PLO | − 0.010 | 0.010 | − 0.038 | 0.006 | |
SE → PLO | Total effect | 0.571*** | 0.052 | 0.468 | 0.708 |
Total direct | 0.231*** | 0.056 | 0.116 | 0.389 | |
Total indirect: | 0.340*** | 0.045 | 0.254 | 0.450 | |
Specific 1: SE → IV → PLO | 0.339*** | 0.043 | 0.257 | 0.448 | |
Specific 2: SE → TE → PLO | 0.001 | 0.006 | − 0.008 | 0.023 |
Moderated relations
Learning engagement | Perceived learning outcomes | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% CI for main & moderating effects | 95% CI for main & moderating effects | |||||||
Dependent variables | B | SE | BootLLCI | BootULCI | B | SE | BootLLCI | BootULCI |
Attitudes | 0.442*** | 0.107 | 0.231 | 0.653 | 0.403*** | 0.119 | 0.169 | 0.638 |
Self-efficacy | 0.424*** | 0.122 | 0.183 | 0.665 | 0.420** | 0.138 | 0.148 | 0.692 |
Attitudes × task effort cost | − 0.092** | 0.032 | − 0.155 | − 0.029 | − 0.075* | 0.036 | − 0.146 | − 0.005 |
Self-efficacy × task effort cost | − 0.058 | 0.038 | − 0.133 | 0.017 | − 0.071 | 0.043 | − 0.156 | 0.013 |