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2020 | Book

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Women and Sustainable Human Development

Empowering Women in Africa

Editors: Maty Konte, Nyasha Tirivayi

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Book Series : Gender, Development and Social Change

Part of: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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About this book

This book adds significantly to the discourse surrounding the progress made in empowering women in Africa over the last decade, providing strong research evidence on diverse and timely gender issues in varied African countries. Topics covered include climate change and environmental degradation, agriculture and land rights, access to – and quality of – education, maternal and reproductive health, unpaid care and women’s labor market participation, financial inclusion and women’s political participation. Cross cutting issues such as migration, masculinities and social norms are also addressed in this volume, which is aimed at policy makers, academics, and indeed anyone else interested in the UN Sustainable Development Goal of the empowerment of women and girls.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

Introduction

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction
Abstract
This chapter presents the motivation, objective, and structure of the book. This book sheds light on the progress made in empowering women in Africa over the last decade and the challenges that remain. It contributes to the discourse on women’s empowerment in Africa by providing a fresh perspective and strong multidisciplinary research evidence on diverse, timely, and relevant gender issues in various (and contextually different) African countries. The book is a collection of literature reviews, empirical studies, and policy discussions that inform policymakers and academics who are interested in the fifth Sustainable Development Goal. The chapters focus on the following issues: (1) climate change and gender, (2) women’s land rights and agricultural productivity in East Africa, (3) maternal health and education, (4) labour market participation and unpaid care work, (5) women’s bargaining power and their households’ well-being, and (6) women in politics and society. Crosscutting issues such as domestic violence, migration, discriminatory social norms, and harmful practices are also addressed in some of the chapters.
Maty Konte, Nyasha Tirivayi

Climate Change and Gender

Frontmatter
Chapter 2. Climate Change, Disease and Gender Gaps in Human Capital Investment
Abstract
The goal of this chapter is to examine the role of climate-induced disease in widening the gender gap in human capital investment. This chapter reviews the literature on climate change, disease and gender gaps, and highlights evidence from a particular disease context—the meningitis belt in sub-Saharan Africa. It provides evidence that changes in the seasonal climate, through the dry season or Harmattan period, are strongly associated with meningitis epidemics in the region. It discusses results from research on the role of Niger’s 1986 meningitis epidemic in reducing girls’ education relative to boys. It highlights the income effects of the epidemic and, specifically, early marriage of girls in exchange for a bride price as a primary mechanism driving the results. The findings underline the need for more research on the interaction between climate change, health and education and gender equality, all major parts of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Belinda Archibong, Francis Annan
Chapter 3. Weather Shocks and Women Empowerment
Abstract
Understanding whether adverse shocks have gender-differentiated effects is crucial for building the resilience of women. This chapter reviews the relationship between income shocks induced by extreme weather events in Africa and women empowerment as measured through human capital variables, marriage and fertility decisions, exposure to violence and economic independence. It also discusses the channels explaining the effect of weather shocks on women empowerment and provides policy recommendations on how to address the challenges this relationship poses.
Linguère Mously Mbaye
Chapter 4. Gender and Climate Change: Towards Comprehensive Policy Options
Abstract
This chapter reviews women’s vulnerability to climate change, gender differences in attitudes and behaviours towards climate change, and gender differences in climate change adaptation. The vulnerability can be traced back to a lack of resources available to women, an unfavourable division of labour, and specific cultural restrictions on the activities of women. In addition, the positive influence of women on decision-making with regard to climate change mitigation can be explained by whether the contributions of men and women to communities are complementary. This deepened understanding has led to the emergence of policy options which address gender and climate change in a comprehensive and cohesive manner. Many mitigation measures, for example, generate synergy effects, thus creating an improved understanding of how climate policy can be designed in a gender-sensitive way. This chapter provides solid guidance for policymakers interested in the SDG target 5.a and in all the targets listed in the SDG 13.
Gregor Schwerhoff, Maty Konte

Women’s Land Rights and Agricultural Productivity in East Africa

Frontmatter
Chapter 5. Women’s Land Rights and Agricultural Productivity in Uganda
Abstract
This chapter examines the status of women’s land rights and their implications for agricultural productivity in Uganda. The study finds that women had ownership rights over 32% of the surveyed parcels and use rights over 16% of the parcels. It also finds that granting land rights to women enhances productivity, but ownership rights are more important than use rights. Yield was significantly higher on parcels owned by women compared to those where women only had use rights. Therefore, granting use rights alone is not sufficient to promote efficient land use by women, but granting ownership rights can and does enhance yield. These results suggest that there is a need to strengthen female land ownership rights to promote agricultural productivity and reduce poverty. Enhancing women’s land rights is key in achieving the first and fifth sustainable development goals—alleviating poverty and promoting gender equality, respectively.
Francis Mwesigye, Madina Guloba, Mildred Barungi
Chapter 6. Land Tenure, Gender, and Productivity in Ethiopia and Tanzania
Abstract
Agricultural land use and tenure systems in many African countries are characterized by subsistence production and a communal land tenure system. Reforming the tenure system in a way that ensures tenure security could promote sustainable agriculture in the region. In addition, the right of women to own land is essential for rural development. This chapter, therefore, analyses the gender differential effects of land tenure security on productivity in East Africa using Living Standard Measurement Study data from Ethiopia and Tanzania. The chapter uses plot- and household-level data to investigate the effect of land title and other determinants of crop productivity. The main results show that tenure security positively and significantly affects households’ productivity in general and is marginally significant for female-headed households in particular. Potential indicators that positively correlate with crop productivity are total land and plot sizes, inorganic fertilizer use, input credit access, herbicide use, soil, and plot type. Policy implications are based on the results.
Tigist M. Melesse, Yesuf M. Awel

Maternal Health and Education

Frontmatter
Chapter 7. Towards Achieving Equity in Utilisation of Maternal Health Services in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries: Progress and Remaining Challenges in Priority Countries
Abstract
This chapter highlights the gaps and challenges towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 3, target 3.8 of universal maternal health coverage in sub-Saharan Africa, including financial risk protection and access to safe, quality, and affordable services by 2030. The analysis focuses on priority countries with high maternal mortality rates (i.e., Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Chad, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Côte d’Ivoire, Cameroon, Mali, Niger, and Kenya). Findings show that considerable numbers of poor pregnant women are still not accessing quality maternal health services in the region because of non-existent or weak national financing strategies that do not reduce or eliminate out-of-pocket payments. The need for effective implementation of social (health) protection programmes in these countries is evident, especially health insurance and fee waivers for antenatal care, delivery, and postnatal care. All priority countries should define equity goals with clear targets every 3–5 years and increase the quality and quantity of data monitoring to monitor progress.
Estelle M. Sidze, Martin K. Mutua, Hermann P. Donfouet
Chapter 8. Barriers to and Facilitators of Contraceptive Use Among Married Adolescent Girls in Six Sub-Saharan African Countries
Abstract
Evidence on the prevalence and drivers of contraceptive use among married adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa is limited. This chapter uses multivariable regression analysis to determine the barriers and facilitators to modern contraceptive use among married adolescent girls in six countries with the highest prevalence of adolescent marriage on the continent. The study finds that facilitators of contraceptive use among married adolescents are own and partner education, visits to health facilities, living in urban areas and receiving family planning information from the media. Having a partner or husband who wants more children is a barrier to contraceptive use. Factors such as household size, age and knowledge of ovulatory cycle are both barriers and facilitators of contraceptive use. These findings can inform policy strategies for increasing contraceptive uptake among married adolescent girls which would aid progress towards ensuring “universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services” as stated in Target 3.7 of Sustainable Development Goal 3 and “universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights” as stated in Target 5.6 of Sustainable Development Goal 5.
Nyasha Tirivayi
Chapter 9. Achieving Gender Equality in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Progress and Challenges in Moving from the MDGs to the SDGs
Abstract
Achieving gender equality in education is an important goal for a development agenda. Despite major progress, notably with regard to basic education, equal access to education, for all and at all levels, remains a huge challenge facing sub-Saharan African countries. Based on a systematic review, this chapter examines the current state of knowledge regarding gender inequalities in education in the region since the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. The review shows how achieving parity is challenging for countries because the schooling gap between boys and girls results from broader gender inequalities in the family and the communities at school and in society. The chapter argues the need to consider and implement important transformative actions for gender equality at large to achieve inclusive and equitable quality education for all.
Sandrine A. Koissy-Kpein
Chapter 10. Gender Disparities in Access to and Use of ICT in Senegal
Abstract
Women have become major actors in economic and social life in both developed and developing countries. Their desire for participation in economic life, however, is hindered by their limited human capital capacities as well as the discrimination they face, particularly in accessing information and communication technologies (ICTs). This chapter analyses gender inequalities in access to and use of ICTs in Senegal. The results show the following: first, even in cases where female-headed households are in a position of equality with those headed by men when it comes to ICT endowment, gender disparities are expressed in terms of control, endowment and content. Furthermore, gender disparities in access to technology are expressed less when the use of technology is personal and requires less technical expertise. Finally, the determining factors of gender disparities in ICT accessibility are the availability of basic infrastructure and the cost of access to technology.
Gaye Daffé, Fatoumata L. Diallo

Labour Market Participation and Unpaid Care Work

Frontmatter
Chapter 11. Gender Gaps in Employment and Wages in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review
Abstract
Although many studies have examined gender gaps in labour market outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa, most have been conducted within specific countries, making it difficult to form a global picture of women’s position in this part of the world. This chapter provides a critical review of the extant literature on gender gaps in employment and wages in sub-Saharan Africa. It examines, in the midst of considerable economic and cultural diversity, the regularities in women’s position in the labour market position relative to those of men. The review attests that the pattern and correlates of the gaps are somewhat similar across countries, broadly pointing towards policies that contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 5 and 8 in order to arrest the gaps. Nonetheless, a more informed diagnosis of the gender gap problem in sub-Saharan Africa requires datasets that go beyond what is currently available, and analytical methods that dig deeper into the gaps’ causal mechanisms.
Miracle Ntuli, Prudence Kwenda
Chapter 12. Child Health and Relatives’ Employment in South Africa: The Gendered Effect Beyond Parents
Abstract
This chapter assesses how children’s serious illness or disability affects the labour market participation of all adults living in a household. The chapter goes beyond the usual father–mother analyses and accounts for the context of developing countries characterised by an extended family structure. It uses the National Income Dynamics Study panel data and utilises fixed-effects logistic regressions and linear regressions for analysis. The results show that a child’s illness or disability significantly increases the employment odds of fathers while reducing those of mothers. These effects are even stronger among married parents. Non-parent males are more likely to work, while no significant effect is found on non-parent females. Child illness is associated, although not significantly, with the wider difference in the proportion of males and females working at the household level. This shows that there is an urgent need for policymakers to be concerned about families with ill or disabled children and to reduce the employment gender gap and make progress towards the fifth Sustainable Development Goal.
Arlette Simo Fotso, Oluwaseyi Dolapo Somefun, Clifford Odimegwu
Chapter 13. Unpaid Care Work Inequality and Women’s Employment Outcomes in Senegal
Abstract
Women around the world bear a larger share of unpaid care work than men. Such inequality hinders their opportunities in the paid labour market. This chapter explores the determinants of the inequality in unpaid care work that women face within their household. The chapter also examines the effects of unpaid care work inequality on women’s employment outcomes using the Survey of Monitoring Poverty in Senegal, conducted in 2011. The results show that the socio-economic characteristics of women are important determinants of the unpaid care work inequality they face within their household. Such inequality has consequences on women’s employment outcomes. Women facing higher inequality in unpaid care work are less likely to get involved in paid work, to be formally employed and obtain a full-time job. These findings suggest that there is a need for addressing the unequal distribution of unpaid care work between men and women in order to realize the fifth Sustainable Development Goal by 2030.
Racky Baldé
Chapter 14. When Women Go to the City: African Women’s Rural-Urban Migration and the Sustainable Development Goals
Abstract
Since the 1980s, there has been an increase in the rural-urban migration of African women seeking employment in the urban informal economy. However, perceptions of internal migration and informal employment as economically, socially and politically destabilizing have led to a policy stance that discourages these processes. Drawing on field research in Ghana, this chapter shows that while rural-urban migration gives women access to an independent source of income through informal employment and allows women to make remittances that facilitate investments in education in their origin households, the emancipatory potential of migration for women is limited by policies that stigmatize or penalize rural-urban migration and informal employment. Sustainable Development Goals 5 and 8 require African governments to promote gender equality and empower women by expanding their freedom to choose whether or not to migrate, by protecting labour rights, and by promoting safe and secure working environments for women who do migrate from rural areas to work in the urban informal economy.
Lynda Pickbourn

Women’s Bargaining Power and Their Households’ Well-Being

Frontmatter
Chapter 15. Women Empowerment and Child Obesity: Evidence in Comoros, Malawi, and Mozambique
Abstract
Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa are experiencing an increase in the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity, even though many countries are still grappling with the persistence of child malnutrition. A quarter of all obese and overweight preschool-aged children live in the region. There is, however, a gap in research on child obesity in African countries, and particularly on how mothers’ empowerment (either through employment or decision-making in the household) might affect this. This chapter fills this gap by applying a mixed-effects binary logistic regression model on nationally representative data from three countries in sub-Saharan Africa with particularly high levels of child obesity. This study finds different relationships between women’s empowerment and child obesity in different countries, pointing to the importance of further study in Africa to better identify the mechanisms driving these links. A better understanding of these relationships will not only help to inform policies aimed at empowering women in Africa but also assist in ensuring the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals that promote the improvement of child nutrition (SDG 2) and the achievement of gender equality (SDG 5).
Carolyn Chisadza, Eleni Yitbarek, Nicky Nicholls
Chapter 16. Women, Inclusive Finance and the Quality of Life: Evidence from Zambia
Abstract
The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal on gender equality seeks to achieve equal rights to economic resources, including financial services. This chapter uses the FinScope surveys of 2015 to investigate the gap between male and female use of formal financial services in Zambia, its predictors and the implications on the quality of life of households, following financial sector reforms in the country. The results show that fewer women use formal financial services compared to men, accounted for by education, location and source of income. Financially included female-headed households enjoy a significantly better quality of life than financially excluded female-headed households. There is, however, no such difference, when financially included female-headed households are compared to financially included male-headed households, evidence that access to and use of finance can reduce gender inequality in wealth.
Lwanga Elizabeth Nanziri
Chapter 17. Women’s Bargaining Power and Households’ Living Standards in West Africa: Evidence from Benin, Togo and Mali
Abstract
This chapter examines the effect of women’s participation in household decisions on living standards. In the logic of cooperative theories, the chapter is based on the assumption that the cooperative decision-making process is beneficial for the household’s utility function. Data from the Demographic and Health Survey of Benin, Mali and Togo are used in order to evaluate the impact of women’s bargaining power on household living standards. Results from the study indicate a convergence of the empirical results obtained in these three countries and highlight the beneficial effect of the participation of women in decisions on the standard of living of households. In addition, it appears that variables such as education level, spousal age and place of residence have significant effects on the standard of living of households.
Monsoï Kenneth Colombiano Kponou

Women in Politics and Society

Frontmatter
Chapter 18. Female Policymakers and Women’s Well-Being in Africa
Abstract
Over the last decade, many African countries have encouraged policies that increase the number of women policymakers at all levels. Little is known about the economic and social gains of such policies, and how they shape the provision of gender-sensitive goods and services at the local level. This chapter assesses the effects of women holding more seats in the national assembly on the improvement in women-friendly development indicators, measured at the local level across 50 African countries. The findings show a beneficial effect of having more women in parliament on all 11 indicators of women’s well-being, including girls’ education, fertility, child and infant mortality, and early marriage. This suggests that promoting women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership in national assemblies will positively contribute to the Sustainable Development Goal targets 1.B (on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies), 3.2 (on infant and child mortality) and 4.5 (on girls’ school enrolment), among others.
Maty Konte
Chapter 19. Pathways to Political Empowerment: An Examination of Factors That Enable Women to Access Political Leadership Positions in Kenya
Abstract
The factors that help Kenyan women to attain leadership positions have been understudied. This study aims to investigate the factors that enabled 18 female political leaders to emerge as leaders. Factors that this study explores include family background of leadership and personality traits such as self-confidence and resilience. This study employs a feminist methodology that aims at providing female participants with a voice while seeking to understand the emergence of Kenyan women political leaders. This is in keeping with the principles of feminist research, which aim at creating knowledge of women’s experiences and addressing gender inequalities in society. The study uses interview data and desk review as part of the tools of feminist research. It links to Goal 5 of the Sustainable Development Goals, which examines gender inequality in society and seeks to empower girls and women in society through an understanding of the factors that help women in Kenya emerge as leaders.
Lanoi Maloiy
Chapter 20. It Is All about Power: Corruption, Patriarchy and the Political Participation of Women
Abstract
Recent research shows a link between higher rates of political participation of women and less corruption, yet little is known about the link between attitudes towards female political leadership and the acceptance of corruption. In order to fill this knowledge gap, this study employs data from the sixth wave (2010–2014) of the World Values Surveys for Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The study finds that people who agree that men are better political leaders than women, regardless of their gender, are more likely to state that corruption is justifiable. The findings corroborate the argument that corruption is deeply rooted in patriarchal structures, which need to be addressed to achieve both higher political participation of women and lower levels of corruption. This chapter is relevant to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, target 5.5, which focuses on the political participation of women and SDG 16, target 16.5, which focuses on the reduction of corruption.
Ortrun Merkle, Pui-Hang Wong
Chapter 21. Facts, Narrative and Action on Gender Equality in Modern Africa: A Sociological Approach to Priorities and Omissions
Abstract
Africa faces deep-seated challenges related to exclusion, inequality and fragility. An intersectional gender perspective to address gender inequalities in interaction with other disparities is imperative. Both gender hierarchies and the resistance to them happen in practical scenarios and are embedded in paradigms of understanding. The analysis of available information indicates a multispeed progression towards gender equality according to regions, sectors or socio-economic characteristics of women. Evidence-based practice for the promotion of gender equality and the overall inclusion of those left behind constitute a challenge for the diversity of actors in this field. The examination of emerging trends likely to affect gender discourse and action is primordial. Identified trends are the depoliticization and technocratization of gender narratives, the emergence of identity politics and religious interpretations around gender justice, the rise of populism in global politics and the dominance of orthodox economic imaginaries in public, development and gender debates.
María José Moreno Ruiz

Conclusion

Frontmatter
Chapter 22. Conclusion
Abstract
The book’s contributors have addressed a number of issues targeted in the new global development agenda, including climate change and gender, women’s land ownership and agricultural productivity, maternal health and education, discrimination in the labour market and informal work, bargaining power and decision-making, and women’s political empowerment. Cross-cutting issues pertaining to harmful practices that may hinder the progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment were addressed across these topics. This book’s findings acknowledge that women play an important role in Africa’s development. Although this conclusion is in line with evidence in the previous literature, it is interesting that the findings across the chapters have been linked to various targets among the 17 goals of the global development agenda. Because gender is a cross-cutting issue, the findings demonstrate the need for effective policies that go beyond Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of women.
Maty Konte, Nyasha Tirivayi
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Women and Sustainable Human Development
Editors
Maty Konte
Nyasha Tirivayi
Copyright Year
2020
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-14935-2
Print ISBN
978-3-030-14934-5
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14935-2