Skip to main content
Disciplines
Automotive Business IT + Informatics Construction + Real Estate Electrical Engineering + Electronics Energy + Sustainability Insurance + Risk Finance + Banking Management + Leadership Marketing + Sales Mechanical Engineering + Materials
Events
DE
EN
Books
Journals
Topic Page
Marketing
Start single access now
Access for companies
EXTENDED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Published in:
Introduction and Scope Read chapter Read first chapter

2014 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

3. Binder Chemistry – High-Calcium Alkali-Activated Materials

Authors : Susan A. Bernal, John L. Provis, Ana Fernández-Jiménez, Pavel V. Krivenko, Elena Kavalerova, Marta Palacios, Caijun Shi

Published in: Alkali Activated Materials

Publisher: Springer Netherlands

Log in

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

As mentioned in Chap. 2, the development and assessment of alkali-activated binders based on calcium-rich precursors such as blast furnace slag (BFS) and other Ca-rich industrial by-products have been conducted for over a century [1–3]. However, an increase in interest in the understanding of the microstructure of alkali-activated binders has taken place in the past decades. This has been driven by the need for scientific methods to optimise the activation conditions which give a strong, stable binder from a particular raw material, and consequently a high-performance alkali-activated material (AAM) concrete, while achieving acceptable workability and a low environmental footprint. A detailed scientific understanding of the structure of these materials is required to generate the technical underpinnings for standards which will facilitate their wider commercial adoption [4, 5].

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe




 

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now
previous chapter Historical Aspects and Overview
next chapter Binder Chemistry – Low-Calcium Alkali-Activated Materials
Literature
1.
Kühl, H.: Slag cement and process of making the same. U.S. Patent 900,939 (1908)
2.
Purdon, A.O.: Improvements in processes of manufacturing cement, mortars and concretes. British Patent GB427,227 (1935)
3.
Purdon, A.O.: The action of alkalis on blast-furnace slag. J. Soc. Chem. Ind. Trans. Commun. 59, 191–202 (1940)
4.
van Deventer, J.S.J., Provis, J.L., Duxson, P., Brice, D.G.: Chemical research and climate change as drivers in the commercial adoption of alkali activated materials. Waste Biomass Valoriz. 1(1), 145–155 (2010)
5.
van Deventer, J.S.J., Provis, J.L., Duxson, P.: Technical and commercial progress in the adoption of geopolymer cement. Miner. Eng. 29, 89–104 (2012)
6.
Talling, B., Krivenko, P.V.: Blast furnace slag – the ultimate binder. In: Chandra, S. (ed.) Waste Materials Used in Concrete Manufacturing, pp. 235–289. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge (1997)
7.
Krivenko, P.V.: Alkaline cements – from research to application. In: Lukey, G.C. (ed.) Geopolymers 2002. Turn Potential into Profit, Melbourne. CD-ROM Proceedings. Siloxo Pty. Ltd. (2002)
8.
Wang, S.D., Pu, X.C., Scrivener, K.L., Pratt, P.L.: Alkali-activated slag cement and concrete: a review of properties and problems. Adv. Cem. Res. 7(27), 93–102 (1995)
9.
Richardson, I.G.: The nature of C-S-H in hardened cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 29, 1131–1147 (1999)
10.
Juenger, M.C.G., Winnefeld, F., Provis, J.L., Ideker, J.: Advances in alternative cementitious binders. Cem. Concr. Res. 41(12), 1232–1243 (2011)
11.
Yang, N.: Physical chemistry basis for the formation of alkali activated materials – I. J. Chin. Ceram. Soc. 24(2), 209–215 (1996)
12.
Yang, N.: Physical chemistry basis for the formation of alkali activated materials – II. J. Chin. Ceram. Soc. 24(4), 459–465 (1996)
13.
Li, C., Sun, H., Li, L.: A review: The comparison between alkali-activated slag (Si + Ca) and metakaolin (Si + Al) cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 40(9), 1341–1349 (2010)
14.
Shi, C., Qian, J.: High performance cementing materials from industrial slags – a review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 29, 195–207 (2000)
15.
Wang, S.D.: Review of recent research on alkali-activated concrete in China. Mag. Concr. Res. 43(154), 29–35 (1991)
16.
Krivenko, P.V.: Alkaline cements. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine. Vol. 1, pp. 11–129. VIPOL Stock Company (1994)
17.
Krivenko, P.V.: Alkaline cements: structure, properties, aspects of durability. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 3–43. ORANTA (1999)
18.
Puertas, F.: Cementos de escoria activados alcalinamente: situación actual y perspectivas de futuro. Mater. Constr. 45(239), 53–64 (1995)
19.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F.: Alkali-activated slag cements: kinetic studies. Cem. Concr. Res. 27(3), 359–368 (1997)
20.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F., Arteaga, A.: Determination of kinetic equations of alkaline activation of blast furnace slag by means of calorimetric data. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 52(3), 945–955 (1998)
21.
Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., de Mejía Gutierrez, R., Rose, V.: Evolution of binder structure in sodium silicate-activated slag-metakaolin blends. Cem. Concr. Compos. 33(1), 46–54 (2011)
22.
Zhou, H., Wu, X., Xu, Z., Tang, M.: Kinetic study on hydration of alkali-activated slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 23(6), 1253–1258 (1993)
23.
Escalante-Garcia, J., Fuentes, A.F., Gorokhovsky, A., Fraire-Luna, P.E., Mendoza-Suarez, G.: Hydration products and reactivity of blast-furnace slag activated by various alkalis. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 86(12), 2148–2153 (2003)
24.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F., Sobrados, I., Sanz, J.: Structure of calcium silicate hydrates formed in alkaline-activated slag: influence of the type of alkaline activator. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 86(8), 1389–1394 (2003)
25.
Brough, A.R., Atkinson, A.: Sodium silicate-based, alkali-activated slag mortars: Part I. Strength, hydration and microstructure. Cem. Concr. Res. 32(6), 865–879 (2002)
26.
Richardson, I.G., Groves, G.W.: Microstructure and microanalysis of hardened cement pastes involving ground granulated blast-furnace slag. J. Mater. Sci. 27(22), 6204–6212 (1992)
27.
Myers, R.J., Bernal, S.A., San Nicolas, R., Provis, J.L.: Generalized structural description of calcium-sodium aluminosilicate hydrate gels: the cross linked substituted tobermorite model. Langmuir 29(17), 5294–5306 (2013)
28.
Schilling, P.J., Butler, L.G., Roy, A., Eaton, H.C.: 29Si and 27Al MAS-NMR of NaOH-activated blast-furnace slag. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 77(9), 2363–2368 (1994)
29.
Bonk, F., Schneider, J., Cincotto, M.A., Panepucci, H.: Characterization by multinuclear high-resolution NMR of hydration products in activated blast-furnace slag pastes. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 86(10), 1712–1719 (2003)
30.
Lothenbach, B., Gruskovnjak, A.: Hydration of alkali-activated slag: thermodynamic modelling. Adv. Cem. Res. 19(2), 81–92 (2007)
31.
Chen, W., Brouwers, H.: The hydration of slag, part 1: reaction models for alkali-activated slag. J. Mater. Sci. 42(2), 428–443 (2007)
32.
Ben Haha, M., Lothenbach, B., Le Saout, G., Winnefeld, F.: Influence of slag chemistry on the hydration of alkali-activated blast-furnace slag – Part I: effect of MgO. Cem. Concr. Res. 41(9), 955–963 (2011)
33.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F.: Effect of activator mix on the hydration and strength behaviour of alkali-activated slag cements. Adv. Cem. Res. 15(3), 129–136 (2003)
34.
Bernal, S.A., de Mejía Gutierrez, R., Rose, V., Provis, J.L.: Effect of silicate modulus and metakaolin incorporation on the carbonation of alkali silicate-activated slags. Cem. Concr. Res. 40(6), 898–907 (2010)
35.
Zhang, Y.J., Zhao, Y.L., Li, H.H., Xu, D.L.: Structure characterization of hydration products generated by alkaline activation of granulated blast furnace slag. J. Mater. Sci. 43, 7141–7147 (2008)MathSciNet
36.
Puertas, F., Palacios, M., Manzano, H., Dolado, J.S., Rico, A., Rodríguez, J.: A model for the C-A-S-H gel formed in alkali-activated slag cements. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 31(12), 2043–2056 (2011)
37.
Ben Haha, M., Le Saout, G., Winnefeld, F., Lothenbach, B.: Influence of activator type on hydration kinetics, hydrate assemblage and microstructural development of alkali activated blast-furnace slags. Cem. Concr. Res. 41(3), 301–310 (2011)
38.
San Nicolas, R., Provis, J.L.: Interfacial transition zone in alkali-activated slag concrete. In: Twelfth International Conference on Recent Advances in Concrete Technology and Sustainability Issues, Prague, Czech Republic. Supplementary Papers CD-ROM. American Concrete Institute, Detroit (2012)
39.
Bernal, S.A., San Nicolas, R., Provis, J.L., Mejía de Gutiérrez, R., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Natural carbonation of aged alkali-activated slag concretes. Mater. Struct. (2013, in press). doi:10.​1617/​s11527-013-0089-2
40.
Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., Rose, V., de Mejía Gutiérrez, R.: High-resolution x-ray diffraction and fluorescence microscopy characterization of alkali-activated slag-metakaolin binders. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 96(6), 1951–1957 (2013)
41.
Taylor, R., Richardson, I.G., Brydson, R.M.D.: Composition and microstructure of 20-year-old ordinary Portland cement-ground granulated blast-furnace slag blends containing 0 to 100% slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 40(7), 971–983 (2010)
42.
Chen, X., Pochard, I., Nonat, A.: Thermodynamic and structural study of the substitution of Si by Al in C-S-H. In: Beaudoin, J.J. (ed.) 12th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Montreal. CD-ROM proceedings (2007)
43.
Pardal, X., Pochard, I., Nonat, A.: Experimental study of Si–Al substitution in calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) prepared under equilibrium conditions. Cem. Concr. Res. 39, 637–643 (2009)
44.
Richardson, I.G., Brough, A.R., Brydson, R., Groves, G.W., Dobson, C.M.: Location of aluminum in substituted calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gels as determined by 29Si and 27Al NMR and EELS. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 76(9), 2285–2288 (1993)
45.
Sun, G.K., Young, J.F., Kirkpatrick, R.J.: The role of Al in C-S-H: NMR, XRD, and compositional results for precipitated samples. Cem. Concr. Res. 36(1), 18–29 (2006)
46.
Shi, C., Krivenko, P.V., Roy, D.M.: Alkali-Activated Cements and Concretes. Taylor & Francis, Abingdon (2006)
47.
Ben Haha, M., Lothenbach, B., Le Saout, G., Winnefeld, F.: Influence of slag chemistry on the hydration of alkali-activated blast-furnace slag – Part II: effect of Al2O3. Cem. Concr. Res. 42(1), 74–83 (2012)
48.
Nocuń-Wczelik, W.: Heat evolution in alkali activated synthetic slag – metakaolin mixtures. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 86(3), 739–743 (2006)
49.
Fernandez-Jimenez, A., Puertas, F., Arteaga, A.: Determination of kinetic equations of alkaline activation of blast furnace slag by means of calorimetric data. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 52(3), 945–955 (1998)
50.
Shi, C.: On the state and role of alkalis during the activation of alkali-activated slag cement. In: Grieve, G., Owens, G. (eds.) Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Durban, South Africa. Tech Books International, New Delhi, India, pp. 2097–2105 (2003)
51.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: A calorimetric study of early hydration of alkali-slag cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 25(6), 1333–1346 (1995)
52.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: Some factors affecting early hydration of alkali-slag cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 26(3), 439–447 (1996)
53.
Wang, S.D., Scrivener, K.L., Pratt, P.L.: Factors affecting the strength of alkali-activated slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 24(6), 1033–1043 (1994)
54.
Živica, V.: Effects of type and dosage of alkaline activator and temperature on the properties of alkali-activated slag mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 21(7), 1463–1469 (2007)
55.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: Selectivity of alkaline activators for the activation of slags. Cem. Concr. Aggress. 18(1), 8–14 (1996)
56.
Roy, A., Schilling, P.J., Eaton, H.C., Malone, P.G., Brabston, W.N., Wakeley, L.D.: Activation of ground blast-furnace slag by alkali-metal and alkaline-earth hydroxides. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 75(12), 3233–3240 (1992)
57.
Song, S., Sohn, D., Jennings, H.M., Mason, T.O.: Hydration of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag. J. Mater. Sci. 35, 249–257 (2000)
58.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Palomo, J.G., Puertas, F.: Alkali-activated slag mortars. Mechanical strength behaviour. Cem. Concr. Res. 29, 1313–1321 (1999)
59.
Duran Atiş, C., Bilim, C., Çelik, Ö., Karahan, O.: Influence of activator on the strength and drying shrinkage of alkali-activated slag mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 23(1), 548–555 (2009)
60.
Palacios, M., Puertas, F.: Effectiveness of mixing time on hardened properties of waterglass-activated slag pastes and mortars. ACI Mater. J. 108(1), 73–78 (2011)
61.
Gu, J., Jin, Z.: Quality control of the raw materials for alkali activated slag cement. Cement 8, 12–15 (1990)
62.
Wang, P., Jin, Z., Zhang, Y.: Study on the composite activator for alkali activated slag cement. New Build. Mater. 8, 32–34 (2005)
63.
Milestone, N.B.: Reactions in cement encapsulated nuclear wastes: need for toolbox of different cement types. Adv. Appl. Ceram. 105(1), 13–20 (2006)
64.
Bai, Y., Collier, N., Milestone, N., Yang, C.: The potential for using slags activated with near neutral salts as immobilisation matrices for nuclear wastes containing reactive metals. J. Nucl. Mater. 413(3), 183–192 (2011)
65.
Roy, D.: Alkali-activated cements – opportunities and challenges. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(2), 249–254 (1999)
66.
Bernal, S.A., Skibsted, J., Herfort, D.: Hybrid binders based on alkali sulfate-activated Portland clinker and metakaolin. In: Palomo, A. (ed.) XIII International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Madrid. CD-ROM proceedings (2011)
67.
Richardson, I.G., Brough, A.R., Groves, G.W., Dobson, C.M.: The characterization of hardened alkali-activated blast-furnace slag pastes and the nature of the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) paste. Cem. Concr. Res. 24(5), 813–829 (1994)
68.
Wang, S.D., Scrivener, K.L.: Hydration products of alkali-activated slag cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 25(3), 561–571 (1995)
69.
Rajaokarivony-Andriambololona, Z., Thomassin, J.H., Baillif, P., Touray, J.C.: Experimental hydration of two synthetic glassy blast furnace slags in water and alkaline solutions (NaOH and KOH 0.1 N) at 40° C: structure, composition and origin of the hydrated layer. J. Mater. Sci. 25(5), 2399–2410 (1990)
70.
Richardson, I.G.: Tobermorite/jennite – and tobermorite/calcium hydroxide-based models for the structure of C-S-H: applicability to hardened pastes of tricalcium silicate, β-dicalcium silicate, Portland cement, and blends of Portland cement with blast-furnace slag, metakaolin, or silica fume. Cem. Concr. Res. 34(9), 1733–1777 (2004)
71.
Taylor, R., Richardson, I.G., Brydson, R.M.D.: Nature of C-S-H in 20 year old neat ordinary Portland cement and 10% Portland cement-90% ground granulated blast furnace slag pastes. Adv. Appl. Ceram. 106(6), 294–301 (2007)
72.
Richardson, I.G.: The calcium silicate hydrates. Cem. Concr. Res. 38(2), 137–158 (2008)
73.
Fernández-Jiménez, A.: Cementos de escorias activadas alcalinamente: influencia de las variables y modelización del proceso. Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (2000)
74.
Pardal, X., Brunet, F., Charpentier, T., Pochard, I., Nonat, A.: 27Al and 29Si solid-state NMR characterization of calcium-aluminosilicate-hydrate. Inorg. Chem. 51, 1827–1836 (2012)
75.
Renaudin, G., Russias, J., Leroux, F., Cau-dit-Comes, C., Frizon, F.: Structural characterization of C-S-H and C-A-S-H samples – Part II: local environment investigated by spectroscopic analyses. J. Solid State Chem. 182(12), 3320–3329 (2009)
76.
Schneider, J., Cincotto, M.A., Panepucci, H.: 29Si and 27Al high-resolution NMR characterization of calcium silicate hydrate phases in activated blast-furnace slag pastes. Cem. Concr. Res. 31(7), 993–1001 (2001)
77.
Palacios, M., Puertas, F.: Effect of carbonation on alkali-activated slag paste. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 89(10), 3211–3221 (2006)
78.
Yang, K.H., Song, J.K., Ashour, A.F., Lee, E.T.: Properties of cementless mortars activated by sodium silicate. Constr. Build. Mater. 22(9), 1981–1989 (2008)
79.
Yang, K.H., Song, J.K., Lee, K.S., Ashour, A.F.: Flow and compressive strength of alkali-activated mortars. ACI Mater. J. 106(1), 50–58 (2009)
80.
Yang, K.H., Song, J.K.: Workability loss and compressive strength development of cementless mortars activated by combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 21(3), 119–127 (2009)
81.
Rouseková, I., Bajza, A., Živica, V.: Silica fume-basic blast furnace slag systems activated by an alkali silica fume activator. Cem. Concr. Res. 27(12), 1825–1828 (1997)
82.
Živica, V.: High effective silica fume alkali activator. Bull. Mater. Sci. 27(2), 179–182 (2004)
83.
Živica, V.: Effectiveness of new silica fume alkali activator. Cem. Concr. Comp. 28(1), 21–25 (2006)
84.
Bernal, S.A., Rodríguez, E.D., de Mejia Gutiérrez, R., Provis, J.L., Delvasto, S.: Activation of metakaolin/slag blends using alkaline solutions based on chemically modified silica fume and rice husk ash. Waste Biomass Valor. 3(1), 99–108 (2012)
85.
Rodríguez, E.D., Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., Paya, J., Monzo, J.M., Borrachero, M.V.: Effect of nanosilica-based activators on the performance of an alkali-activated fly ash binder. Cem. Concr. Compos. 35(1), 1–11 (2013)
86.
Wang, S.D., Scrivener, K.L.: 29Si and 27Al NMR study of alkali-activated slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 33(5), 769–774 (2003)
87.
Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., Walkley, B., San Nicolas, R., Gehman, J.D., Brice, D.G., Kilcullen, A., Duxson, P., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Gel nanostructure in alkali-activated binders based on slag and fly ash, and effects of accelerated carbonation. Cem. Concr. Res. 53, 127–144 (2013). doi:10.​1016/​j.​cemconres.​2013.​06.​007
88.
Gruskovnjak, A., Lothenbach, B., Holzer, L., Figi, R., Winnefeld, F.: Hydration of alkali-activated slag: comparison with ordinary Portland cement. Adv. Cem. Res. 18(3), 119–128 (2006)
89.
Lloyd, R.R., Provis, J.L., Smeaton, K.J., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Spatial distribution of pores in fly ash-based inorganic polymer gels visualised by Wood’s metal intrusion. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 126(1–2), 32–39 (2009)
90.
Ismail, I., Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., Hamdan, S., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Microstructural changes in alkali activated fly ash/slag geopolymers with sulfate exposure. Mater. Struct. 46(3), 361–373 (2013)
91.
Melo Neto, A.A., Cincotto, M.A., Repette, W.: Drying and autogenous shrinkage of pastes and mortars with activated slag cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 38, 565–574 (2008)
92.
Häkkinen, T.: The influence of slag content on the microstructure, permeability and mechanical properties of concrete: Part 1. Microstructural studies and basic mechanical properties. Cem. Concr. Res. 23(2), 407–421 (1993)
93.
Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J.G., Cheng, Y.B.: Effect of elevated temperature curing on properties of alkali-activated slag concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(10), 1619–1625 (1999)
94.
Bernal, S.A., Provis, J.L., Brice, D.G., Kilcullen, A., Duxson, P., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Accelerated carbonation testing of alkali-activated binders significantly underestimate the real service life: the role of the pore solution. Cem. Concr. Res. 42(10), 1317–1326 (2012)
95.
Faucon, P., Delagrave, A., Petit, J.C., Richet, C., Marchand, J.M., Zanni, H.: Aluminum incorporation in calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) depending on their Ca/Si ratio. J. Phys. Chem. B 103(37), 7796–7802 (1999)
96.
Andersen, M.D., Jakobsen, H.J., Skibsted, J.: Incorporation of aluminum in the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) of hydrated Portland cements: a high-field 27Al and 29Si MAS NMR investigation. Inorg. Chem. 42(7), 2280–2287 (2003)
97.
Andersen, M.D., Jakobsen, H.J., Skibsted, J.: A new aluminium-hydrate species in hydrated Portland cements characterized by 27Al and 29Si MAS NMR spectroscopy. Cem. Concr. Res. 36(1), 3–17 (2006)
98.
Le Saoût, G., Ben Haha, M., Winnefeld, F., Lothenbach, B.: Hydration degree of alkali-activated slags: a 29Si NMR study. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 94(12), 4541–4547 (2011)
99.
Sakulich, A.R., Anderson, E., Schauer, C., Barsoum, M.W.: Mechanical and microstructural characterization of an alkali-activated slag/limestone fine aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 23, 2951–2959 (2009)
100.
Xu, H., Provis, J.L., van Deventer, J.S.J., Krivenko, P.V.: Characterization of aged slag concretes. ACI Mater. J. 105(2), 131–139 (2008)
101.
Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J.G., Cheng, Y.B.: Alkali activation of Australian slag cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(1), 113–120 (1999)
102.
Fernández-Jiménez, A., Puertas, F.: Setting of alkali-activated slag cement. Influence of activator nature. Adv. Cem. Res. 13(3), 115–121 (2001)
103.
Sakulich, A.R., Miller, S., Barsoum, M.W.: Chemical and microstructural characterization of 20-month-old alkali-activated slag cements. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 93(6), 1741–1748 (2010)
104.
Moseson, A.J., Moseson, D.E., Barsoum, M.W.: High volume limestone alkali-activated cement developed by design of experiment. Cem. Concr. Compos. 34(3), 328–336 (2012)
105.
Małolepszy, J.: Activation of synthetic melilite slags by alkalies. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Vol. 4, pp. 104–107 (1986)
106.
Collins, F., Sanjayan, J.G.: Early age strength and workability of slag pastes activated by NaOH and Na2CO3. Cem. Concr. Res. 28(5), 655–664 (1998)
107.
Collins, F., Sanjayan, J.G.: Workability and mechanical properties of alkali-activated slag concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 29, 455–458 (1999)
108.
Hewlett, P.C.: Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 4th edn. Elsevier, Oxford (1998)
109.
Douglas, E., Brandstetr, J.: A preliminary study on the alkali activation of ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 20(5), 746–756 (1990)
110.
Fundi, Y.S.A.: Alkaline pozzolana Portland cement. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine. Vol. 1, pp. 181–192. VIPOL Stock Company (1994)
111.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: Chemical activation of blended cements made with lime and natural pozzolans. Cem. Concr. Res. 23(6), 1389–1396 (1993)
112.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: Pozzolanic reaction in the presence of chemical activators: Part II. Reaction products and mechanism. Cem. Concr. Res. 30(4), 607–613 (2000)
113.
Shi, C., Day, R.L.: Pozzolanic reaction in the presence of chemical activators: Part I. Reaction kinetics. Cem. Concr. Res. 30(1), 51–58 (2000)
114.
Lloyd, R.R., Provis, J.L., van Deventer, J.S.J.: Pore solution composition and alkali diffusion in inorganic polymer cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 40(9), 1386–1392 (2010)
115.
Oliveira, C.T.A., John, V.M., Agopyan, V.: Pore water composition of clinker free granulated blast furnace slag cements pastes. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 109–119. ORANTA (1999)
116.
Song, S., Jennings, H.M.: Pore solution chemistry of alkali-activated ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 29, 159–170 (1999)
117.
Puertas, F., Fernández-Jiménez, A., Blanco-Varela, M.T.: Pore solution in alkali-activated slag cement pastes. Relation to the composition and structure of calcium silicate hydrate. Cem. Concr. Res. 34(1), 139–148 (2004)
118.
Faucon, P., Charpentier, T., Nonat, A., Petit, J.C.: Triple-quantum two-dimensional 27Al magic angle nuclear magnetic resonance study of the aluminum incorporation in calcium silicate hydrates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120(46), 12075–12082 (1998)
119.
Glasser, F.P.: Mineralogical aspects of cement in radioactive waste disposal. Miner. Mag. 65(5), 621–633 (2001)
120.
Roy, A.: Sulfur speciation in granulated blast furnace slag: an x-ray absorption spectroscopic investigation. Cem. Concr. Res. 39, 659–663 (2009)
121.
Provis, J.L., Duxson, P., van Deventer, J.S.J.: The role of particle technology in developing sustainable construction materials. Adv. Powder Technol. 21(1), 2–7 (2010)
122.
Talling, B., Brandstetr, J.: Present state and future of alkali-activated slag concretes. In: Malhotra, V.M. (ed.) 3rd International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, ACI SP114, Trondheim, Norway. Vol. 2, pp. 1519–1546. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI (1989)
123.
Collins, F., Sanjayan, J.G.: Effects of ultra-fine materials on workability and strength of concrete containing alkali-activated slag as the binder. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(3), 459–462 (1999)
124.
Lim, N.G., Jeong, S.W., Her, J.W., Ann, K.Y.: Properties of cement-free concrete cast by finely grained nanoslag with the NaOH-based alkali activator. Constr. Build. Mater. 35, 557–563 (2012)
125.
Kumar, R., Kumar, S., Badjena, S., Mehrotra, S.P.: Hydration of mechanically activated granulated blast furnace slag. Metall. Mater. Trans. B 36(6), 873–883 (2005)
126.
ASTM International: Standard Test Method for Hydraulic Activity of Slag Cement by Reaction with Alkali (ASTM C1073 – 12). West Conshohocken (2012)
127.
Osborn, E.F., Roeder, P.L., Ulmer, G.C.: Part I – phase equilibria at solidus temperatures in the quaternary system CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 and their bearing on optimum composition of blast furnace slag and on slag properties. Bull. Earth Miner. Sci. Exp. Stat. Penn. State Univ. 85, 1–22 (1969)
128.
Brown, P.W.: The system Na2O-CaO-SiO2-H2O. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 73(11), 3457–3561 (1990)
129.
Kalousek, G.L.: Studies of proportions of the quaternary system soda-lime-silica-water at 25°C. J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. 32, 285–302 (1944)
130.
Ilyukhin, V.V., Kuznetsov, V.A., Lobatchov, A.N., Bakshutov, V.S.: Hydrosilicates of Calcium. Synthesis of Monocrystals and Crystal Chemistry. Nauka, Moscow (1979)
131.
Taylor, H.F.W.: A method for predicting alkali ion concentrations in cement pore solutions. Adv. Cem. Res. 1(1), 5–16 (1987)
132.
Hong, S.Y., Glasser, F.P.: Alkali binding in cement pastes: Part I. The C-S-H phase. Cem. Concr. Res. 29(12), 1893–1903 (1999)
133.
Stade, H.: On the reaction of C-S-H(di, poly) with alkali hydroxides. Cem. Concr. Res. 19(5), 802–810 (1989)
134.
Atkins, M., Bennett, D., Dawes, A., Glasser, F., Kindness, A., Read, D.: A thermodynamic model for blended cements; Research Report for the Department of the Environment, DoE/HMIP/RR/92/005 (1991)
135.
Chen, W., Brouwers, H.J.H.: Alkali binding in hydrated Portland cement paste. Cem. Concr. Res. 40(5), 716–722 (2010)
136.
Hong, S.Y., Glasser, F.P.: Alkali sorption by C-S-H and C-A-S-H gels: Part II. Role of alumina. Cem. Concr. Res. 32(7), 1101–1111 (2002)
137.
Skibsted, J., Andersen, M.D.: The effect of alkali ions on the incorporation of aluminum in the calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) phase resulting from Portland cement hydration studied by 29Si MAS NMR. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 96(2), 651–656 (2013)
138.
García Lodeiro, I., Macphee, D.E., Palomo, A., Fernández-Jiménez, A.: Effect of alkalis on fresh C–S–H gels. FTIR analysis. Cem. Concr. Res. 39, 147–153 (2009)
139.
García-Lodeiro, I.: Compatibility of cement gels C-S-H and N-A-S-H. Studies in real samples and in synthetic gels. Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (2008)
140.
Blakeman, E.A., Gard, J.A., Ramsay, C.G., Taylor, H.F.W.: Studies on the system sodium oxide-calcium oxide-silica-water. J. Appl. Chem. Biotechnol. 24(4–5), 239–245 (1974)
141.
Nelson, E.B., Kalousek, G.L.: Effects of Na2O on calcium silicate hydrates at elevated temperatures. Cem. Concr. Res. 7(6), 687–694 (1977)
142.
Duxson, P., Provis, J.L., Lukey, G.C., van Deventer, J.S.J., Separovic, F., Gan, Z.H.: 39K NMR of free potassium in geopolymers. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45(26), 9208–9210 (2006)
143.
Shi, C.: Steel slag – its production, processing, characteristics and cementitious properties. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 16(3), 230–236 (2004)
144.
Hu, S., Wang, H., Zhang, G., Ding, Q.: Bonding and abrasion resistance of geopolymeric repair material made with steel slag. Cem. Concr. Compos. 30(3), 239–244 (2008)
145.
Wang, Y., Lin, D.: The steel slag blended cement. Silic. Indus. 6, 121–126 (1983)
146.
Petropavlovsky, O.N.: Slag alkaline binding systems and concretes based on steelmaking slag. Thesis, Kiev Civil Engineering Institute (1987)
147.
Li, D., Wu, X.: Improvement of early strength of steel slag cement. Jiangsu Build. Mater. 4, 24–27 (1992)
148.
Shi, C., Wu, X., Tang, M.: Research on alkali-activated cementitious systems in China. Adv. Cem. Res. 5(17), 1–7 (1993)
149.
Bin, Q., Wu, X., Tang, M.: An investigation on alkali-BFS-steel slag cement. In: 2nd Beijing International Symposium on Cements and Concretes, Beijing, P.R. China, pp. 288–294 (1989)
150.
Bin, Q., Wu, X., Tang, M.: High strength alkali steel-iron slag binder. In: 9th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, New Delhi, India, pp. 291–297 (1992)
151.
Shi, C.: Corrosion resistant cement made with steel mill by-products. In: International Symposium on the Utilization of Metallurgical Slag, Beijing, P.R. China, pp. 171–178 (1999)
152.
Shi, C.: Characteristics and cementitious properties of ladle slag fines from steel production. Cem. Concr. Res. 32(3), 459–462 (2002)
153.
Kavalerova, E., Petropavlovsky, O., Krivenko, P.V.: The role of solid-phase basicity on heat evolution during hardening of cements. In: Tammirinne, M. (ed.) International Conference on Practical Applications in Environmental Geotechnology (ecogeo*2000), Helsinki, Finland, pp. 73–80. VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland (2000)
154.
Natali Murri, A., Rickard, W.D.A., Bignozzi, M.C., van Riessen, A.: High temperature behaviour of ambient cured alkali-activated materials based on ladle slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 43, 51–61 (2013)
155.
Bignozzi, M.C., Manzi, S., Lancellotti, I., Kamseu, E., Barbieri, L., Leonelli, C.: Mix-design and characterization of alkali activated materials based on metakaolin and ladle slag. Appl. Clay Sci. 73, 78–85 (2013)
156.
Shi, C.: Study on alkali activated phosphorous slag cement. J. Nanjing Inst. Chem. Technol. 10(2), 110–116 (1988)
157.
Shi, C.: Influence of temperature on hydration of alkali activated phosphorous slag. J. Nanjing Inst. Chem. Technol. 11(1), 94–99 (1989)
158.
Fang, Y., Mao, Z., Wang, C., Zhu, Q.: Performance of alkali-activated phosphor slag-fly ash cement and the microstructure of its hardened paste. J. Chin. Ceram. Soc. 35(4), 451–455 (2007)
159.
160.
161.
Małolepszy, J., Deja, J., Brylicki, W.: Industrial application of slag alkaline concretes. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine. Vol. 2, pp. 989–1001. VIPOL Stock Company (1994)
162.
Bin, X., Yuan, X.: Research of alkali-activated nickel slag cement. In: Krivenko, P.V. (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 531–536. ORANTA (1999)
163.
Zosin, A.P., Priimak, T.I., Avsaragov, K.B.: Geopolymer materials based on magnesia-iron slags for normalization and storage of radioactive wastes. At. Energy 85(1), 510–514 (1998)
164.
Narang, K.C., Chopra, S.K.: Studies on alkaline activation of BF, steel and alloy slags. Silic. Indus. 9, 175–182 (1983)
165.
Chen, J.-X., Chen, H.-B., Xiao, P., Zhang, L.-F.: A study on complex alkali-slag environmental concrete. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology, Beijing, China, pp. 299–307. Center for Transportation Research and Education, Ames (2004)
166.
Kalinkin, A.M., Kumar, S., Gurevich, B.I., Alex, T.C., Kalinkina, E.V., Tyukavkina, V.V., Kalinnikov, V.T., Kumar, R.: Geopolymerization behavior of Cu–Ni slag mechanically activated in air and in CO2 atmosphere. Int. J. Miner. Proc. 112–113, 101–106 (2012)
167.
Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D.: Utilisation of low-calcium slags to improve the strength and durability of geopolymers. In: Provis, J.L., van Deventer, J.S.J. (eds.) Geopolymers: Structure, Processing, Properties and Industrial Applications, pp. 345–378. Woodhead, Cambridge (2009)
168.
Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D., Perdikatsis, V.: Effect of synthesis parameters on the compressive strength of low-calcium ferronickel slag inorganic polymers. J. Hazard. Mater. 161(2–3), 760–768 (2009)
169.
Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D., Bartzas, G.: Effect of sulphate and nitrate anions on heavy metal immobilisation in ferronickel slag geopolymers. Appl. Clay Sci. 73, 103–109 (2013)
170.
Komnitsas, K., Zaharaki, D., Perdikatsis, V.: Geopolymerisation of low calcium ferronickel slags. J. Mater. Sci. 42(9), 3073–3082 (2007)
171.
Pontikes, Y., Machiels, L., Onisei, S., Pandelaers, L., Geysen, D., Jones, P.T., Blanpain, B.: Slags with a high Al and Fe content as precursors for inorganic polymers. Appl. Clay Sci. 73, 93–102 (2013)
172.
Sathonsaowaphak, A., Chindaprasirt, P., Pimraksa, K.: Workability and strength of lignite bottom ash geopolymer mortar. J. Hazard. Mater. 168(1), 44–50 (2009)
173.
Chindaprasirt, P., Jaturapitakkul, C., Chalee, W., Rattanasak, U.: Comparative study on the characteristics of fly ash and bottom ash geopolymers. Waste Manag. 29(2), 539–543 (2009)
174.
Slavík, R., Bednařík, V., Vondruška, M., Nemec, A.: Preparation of geopolymer from fluidized bed combustion bottom ash. J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 200(1–3), 265–270 (2008)
175.
Xu, H., Li, Q., Shen, L., Wang, W., Zhai, J.: Synthesis of thermostable geopolymer from circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) bottom ashes. J. Hazard. Mater. 175(1–3), 198–204 (2010)
176.
Topçu, I.B., Toprak, M.U.: Properties of geopolymer from circulating fluidized bed combustion coal bottom ash. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 528(3), 1472–1477 (2011)
177.
Luna Galiano, Y., Fernández Pereira, C., Vale, J.: Stabilization/solidification of a municipal solid waste incineration residue using fly ash-based geopolymers. J. Hazard. Mater. 185(1), 373–381 (2011)
178.
Zheng, L., Wang, W., Shi, Y.: The effects of alkaline dosage and Si/Al ratio on the immobilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash-based geopolymer. Chemosphere 79(6), 665–671 (2010)
179.
Zheng, L., Wang, C., Wang, W., Shi, Y., Gao, X.: Immobilization of MSWI fly ash through geopolymerization: Effects of water-wash. Waste Manag. 31(2), 311–317 (2011)
Metadata
Title
Binder Chemistry – High-Calcium Alkali-Activated Materials
Authors
Susan A. Bernal
John L. Provis
Ana Fernández-Jiménez
Pavel V. Krivenko
Elena Kavalerova
Marta Palacios
Caijun Shi
Copyright Year
2014
Publisher
Springer Netherlands
Book
Alkali Activated Materials

Print ISBN: 978-94-007-7671-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-94-007-7672-2

Copyright Year: 2014

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7672-2_3