Carbon Management, Technologies, and Trends in Mediterranean Ecosystems

The term soil functionality implies utilization of soil for specific purposes so that ecosystem functions and services are sustained. Soil functionality strongly impacts environmental sustainability in relation to climate change, water quality and renewability, biodiversity, elemental cycling and transformations. There is a wide range of soil parameters which impact soil functionality. These include physical (texture, structure, pore size distribution, continuity), chemical (pH, E_h, charge density, nutrient reserves, elemental toxicology), biological (microbial biomass carbon, soil respiration, biodiversity) and ecological (soil organic carbon concentration and quality, elemental transformation). The choice of specific indicator depends on specific functions. These parameters can be combined into a soil functionality index. Soil functionality can be measured indirectly be assessing soil quality. Soil functionality also depends on the parent material, land use and management, climate and CO₂ enrichment. Soil functionality can be restored by creating a positive soil/ecosystem carbon budget, carbon sequestration in soil and terrestrial biosphere, enhancement of biodiversity and control of soil erosion. The concept of soil functionality can be used to address global issues such as climate change, food and nutritional security water quality and renewability and biodiversity.

Soils are both sinks and sources of C with great potential to mitigate climate change. Global estimates indicate that they contain between 1,206 Pg of soil organic carbon (SOC) to 1-m depth to more than 1,550 Pg C, which is twice the amount of C present in the atmosphere. Nevertheless the overall the C stocks could reach as much as five times that of the atmosphere considering that many soils are much deeper than 1 m. Instead, emissions from land use change are estimated to make up to 20 % of atmospheric CO₂ through loss of biomass and SOM. Notwithstanding these critical outcomes, soil’s impact in climate change scenarios is generally not well understood and the UNFCCC after CoP 21 in Paris started to increase attention to the potential for soil C sequestration thanks to the French “4 pour 1000” initiative. We argue that SLM can increase productivity particularly by improving water use efficiency, optimizing nutrient cycles and their supply for crop production, enhancing vegetation cover, and improving food security level. Healthy soils produce healthy food, support healthy living, and promote a healthy environment.

Recent increases in atmospheric CO₂ concentration and increased climate variations enforced us to improve our understanding of the terrestrial biosphere to improve human-ecosystem harmony in regard with processes and feedbacks that have functions in the earth system as a whole. Terrestrial ecosystems are principal components of the main carbon pools and land use has a decisive impact on these pools. Studies showed that converting forest and grasslands to farmlands and urban areas can result in considerable amount of carbon losses to atmosphere. However, emitted amounts may depend on the geographical region as well as type of vegetation cover of the converted areas. Recent studies showed that feedbacks between climate change and vegetation is more complicated than it was thought. Combined with these feedbacks, the land use changes may have an intricate impact on carbon exchange between atmosphere and biosphere. Studies showed that the consequences of changes in land use are beyond the expected in terms of ecosystem functioning and environmental quality. Complex interactions among climate, soil, plant productivity, and land management should be understood well to balance ecosystem functions and human welfare. In this literature review, we discussed interactions and feedbacks among terrestrial ecosystems and global carbon balance in regard with global climate change.

Emission trading in three European Union (EU) member states in the Balkans during the second phase (2008–2012) of the EU emissions trading scheme (EU ETS) is investigated in terms of allocation submission of emission credits (assigned amount units (AAU), certified emission reductions (CER), emission reduction units (ERU) and potential trading activities). Greece, Bulgaria and Romania are analyzed as three individual cases under the scope of the EU Directive 2003/87/EC with the aim to identify the adequacy of emission allowances in individual sectors and their resulting utilization. The aforementioned Balkan countries produced over 750 Mt of verified emissions in the first commitment period of 2008–2012, of which approximately 70 % correspond to combustion installations. A deficit emerged for individual installations; although at the sector level, deficits appeared only in the aviation sector for all countries. Greece also experienced a deficit in the emissions trading scheme (ETS) combustion sector prior to the use of CER or ERU under the clean development mechanism (CDM) and the joint implementation (JI) mechanism. This study mainly focuses on the combustion sector while attempting to identify differences in use of international emission credits among the three Balkan countries and sectors therein.

Egypt and Sudan are the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The Nile is considered as a very important artery that joins Sudan and Egypt and was an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Nubian peoples are an ethnic group and considered as one of the most ancient peoples in the world, their civilization started more than 8,000 years ago. Lake Nasser is the second largest man-made lake in the world; among the impacts that were anticipated were the resettlement of the Nubian population in the area inundated by the reservoir, saving of historic monuments, health impacts and coastal erosion. The climate models all estimate a steady increase in temperatures for Egypt, with little intermeddle variance. Somewhat more warming is estimated for summer than for winter. However, since Egypt is mainly a desert and relies primarily on irrigated agriculture, precipitation over the country itself matters very little. Much more important are precipitation changes at the water sources of the Nile, which affect the vulnerability of the water resources. The potential impacts of climate change on coastal resources are ranked as most serious and climate change induced sea level rise reinforces this trend. In addition to this high biophysical exposure to the risk of sea level rise, Egypt’s social sensitivity to sea level rise is particularly high. In general, although the models on average show an increase in precipitation, inter-model variation is so high that it is uncertain as to predict whether annual average precipitation will increase or decrease.

This study first takes a brief look at the relationship between countries’ carbon dioxide emissions and their exports to determine if a relationship exists between carbon emissions and international trading, particularly exports. The analysis considered 23 countries from different income levels and different regions in terms of carbon dioxide emissions, total exports, agricultural exports, industrial exports and service exports. Econometric model ‘Xtreg’ was used to test if the statistical correlation between carbon dioxide emissions and three types of exports (agricultural, industrial and services) was significant or not. The findings were very interesting: carbon emissions were found to increase with the industrial and service exports; however, no meaningful relationship was found between carbon emissions and agricultural exports. The study argues that carbon trading puts a new crack in competition analysis in international economics.

Energy is the main driver of modern national economies. However, energy systems are highly complex and obtaining energy-efficient and clean solutions at the lowest cost is becoming harder under these dynamic circumstances. An integrated decision-making tool is needed in these circumstances as a compass for decision makers. This study aimed to create such a model for Turkey, spanning the period 2005–2025. Firstly, energy supply commodities, sectors and sectoral demands, conversion and process technologies, consumption and demand technologies are determined for Turkey based on energy balance statistics published by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. This database is called the Reference Energy System, and included parameters characterizing each of the technologies and resources used to obtain the energy equilibrium, including fixed and variable costs, technology availability, performance and pollutant emissions. The model also allows user-defined variables. After developing alternative scenarios to achieve cost-effective technology selection and running each alternative of the base scenario one by one, model responses and scenario results are analyzed to provide technical recommendations. Therefore, a functional ‘energy–economy–ecology–engineering’ integrated model calculating final energy consumption from primary energy supply was developed with optimal solutions including both current energy technologies and candidates for near future utilization.

Turkey is an Annex 1 Party with “Specific circumstances” because it has the fastest population growth rate among the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries and lowest per capita energy-related CO₂ emissions among the International Energy Agency (IEA) countries. In addition, all national indicators show that Turkey is in fact a developing country. It was deleted from Annex 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and not included in the Annex B of the first term of the Kyoto Protocol (KP1). In the context of preparation of a 2015 multilateral treaty on climate change, which would enter into force in 2020, differentiation between Annex 1 and non-Annex 1 Parties may be revisited, and it seems useful to explore the possible consequences of such a reclassification. Accordingly, this study aims at providing a neutral cost/benefit assessment of implementing Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) accounting rules in Turkey in the future, as one possible scenario. The rationale for this assessment is based on a technical and objective deduction and does not in any way pre-empt the national positions put forward by Turkey in the climate negotiations or any possible COP decision that may determine its future classification, considering its specific circumstances. Turkey started reporting LULUCF under the Climate Convention in 2006. Presently, the LULUCF sink (made of a forest sink for its bigger part) is estimated to offset 12 % of Turkey’s total greenhouse emissions. For afforestation/reforestation (A/R) (Article 3.3), the objectives of the 2014–2017 OGM (General Directorate of Forestry Turkish abbreviation) Strategic Plan were considered. For forest management (FM) (Article 3.4), two alternative scenarios were considered: 90 Mm³ of roundwood harvest between 2013 and 2017 (intensive harvest) and 25 Mm³/year of felling (industrial round wood) harvest by 2020 (extensive harvest). The corresponding volumes of firewood, felling and total round wood were forecast accordingly from 2013 to 2020. The carbon credits or Removal Units (RMUs) for Article 3.3 ARD and Article 3.4 FM (including the carbon storage in harvested wood products) were estimated using the guidelines from the intergovernmental panel of experts on climate change and taking into account the upgraded LULUCF rules. For Article 3.3, it was estimated that 119.4 million RMUs could be generated between 2013 and 2020, which is more than twice the maximum amount of RMUs to be generated under Article 3.4 FM. The total economic values (TEVs) of Turkey’s forests have been estimated based on recent studies and then used to calculate benefits. Taking into account the recent European Union (EU) market price (Kyoto market) or the recent forest carbon price (Kyoto and voluntary markets), carbon benefits are reduced in all scenarios compared with other values included in the TEV of the forest. If we consider the carbon shadow price (i.e. the recommended carbon price from 2011 to 2050, to achieve the EU target of reducing GHG emissions fourfold by 2050), it is worth noting that the situation is quite different: for the 3.4 FM areas and mainly for 3.3 ARD areas, the carbon benefits are substantial. However, this price level is still far from attainable as negotiations stand now, unless the international community is able to adopt a strong political commitment in coming years.

Climate change is a major threat to ecosystems and livelihoods. Forest ecosystems can be carbon sinks if they are untouched or well managed. They can also become carbon sources if destroyed. Forest ecosystems are important in international climate policy because of their capacity to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and their contributions to biodiversity and sustainability. The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol has provisions and methodologies for afforestation/reforestation (A/R) activities. There is a growing demand from private companies for afforestation/reforestation (A/R) projects due to increasing environmental and social responsibility concerns. However, some industries are interested in accumulating A/R carbon credits to prepare for the possible enactment of a future quantitative carbon emission limitation scheme in Turkey. This study examines recent developments, conditions, opportunities and threats within the A/R carbon sector in Turkey. Details of the only A/R carbon project in Turkey proposed by the Nature Conservation Centre are provided. The results of the certification application process revealed three main points. (1) The certification cost in Turkey is disproportionately high compared with the smaller amount of A/R carbon credits to be obtained per hectare basis. (2) A new level in the certification system might better serve the needs of this country and the others in similar situation. (3) The relevant government institutions require an increased capacity to address carbon issues. They must develop a vision, initiate necessary inter- and intra-institutional coordination and amend regulations appropriately to facilitate A/R certification in Turkey.

The atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration has increased by 31 % since the onset of industrial revolution around 1850, from 280 ppm/year to 400 ppm/year in 2013. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, tillage, irrigation and seed use improvements have increased agricultural production. Moreover, agricultural mismanagement may have affected atmospheric CO₂ through the intensified degradation of soil organic matter (SOM). Water deficiency, high temperatures and land degradation could be the result of increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, particularly in semi-arid Mediterranean regions. High temperatures, decreased water availability and post-harvest straw burning in preparation for the next crop reduce the soil organic carbon (SOC). Note that soil quality and productivity are also declining. In addition, the intensity of climate change is expected to increase. Soil provides a sink for atmospheric CO₂ and therefore reduces net CO₂ emissions associated with agricultural ecosystems, mitigating the ‘greenhouse effect’. There are several techniques to mitigate atmospheric CO₂. One approach involves fixing atmospheric CO₂ via the natural process of photosynthesis in terrestrial ecosystems (soil and biota). Plants fix atmospheric CO₂ in soil and biota because plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi require carbon (C) and contribute to C sequestration (CSQ). Therefore, small changes in the soil C cycle could have large impacts on atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are obligate symbionts of most plant species, and they are important for soil aggregation and stabilization. Mycorrhizae fungi are the major component of soil microbial biomass. AMF hyphae produce glomalin that contains C and that is an important part of the terrestrial C pool. The effects of mycorrhizal colonization on nutrient uptake and root growth have been extensively studied. CSQ and aggregate C storage have become priority topics in soil science since 1990s. Interest in the effects of mycorrhizal hyphae (glomalin as the by-product) and humic substances that enhance aggregate stability is increasing. AMF play a key role in soil aggregate formation and stabilization. This long-term experiment was established in 1996 to assess crop and soil management effects on mycorrhizal development and SOC accumulation. The principal objective was to determine how soil management affects indigenous mycorrhizae and SOC dynamics. Results show that mycorrhizal colonization and sporulation depend on soil and crop management and that soil aggregate development is affected by SOC content and mycorrhizal presence.