Climate Change and Coastal Resources in Tanzania

Most coastal communities are located directly adjacent to the sea and are exposed to climate change through various impacts which go beyond those that are purely geophysical and economic and include the impacts on spiritual and cultural connections to the sea as well. Understanding the interdependency of these subsystems has, however, remained rather superficial. Although a good number of socio-ecological systems (SES) studies have emerged from recent scholarship, there is still a disconnection between generating SES scientific studies and providing decision-relevant information to policy makers. On the other hand, classical studies focused on one or two disciplines are still most common, leading to incremental growth in knowledge about the natural or social system, but rarely both. The dearth of social data relating to human-nature interactions in this particular context is now seen as an omission which can often erode the efficacy of any resource management or conservation action. To address these shortcomings, this book collates eight case studies done in the coastal areas of Tanzania. The conceptual frameworks, applied models, and indices used to highlight the complex nature of SES and the dynamics that can inform environmental policy, conservation, and management of coastal resources in Tanzania are also synthesized.

The main objective of this study was to understand the impacts of climate variability and change on coastal resource governance, communities’ vulnerability and livelihoods security in the district. Specifically, the study aimed to assess the effects of rainfall and temperature variability and change on coastal resource distribution and management, to examine the vulnerabilities of socio-economic activities along the coastal areas to the impacts of climate variability and change and to establish the adaptive measures that the community and other stakeholders adapted to address the impacts of climate change and variability. The research was conducted in three purposively selected villages in Pangani District. A random sample of 60 respondents participated in the study. The study employed a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Findings from this study demonstrate that climate change has happened and is still happening in the study area. The notable impacts of climate change include decrease of rainfall and change of rainfall seasons and patterns, emergence of new crop diseases and pests, decrease of fish catch, intrusion of salinity in the rivers and inland and general decline of crop productivity. The findings reveal that the impacts of climate change have been increasing over time between 1980 and 2014.

This study aimed to assess the vulnerability of selected communities of the island to the impacts of sea level rise and associated coastal flooding, to examine the perception of local communities of North and South Regions of Pemba Island on the occurrence and impact of coastal flooding to their wellbeing and, lastly, to evaluate the adaptive capacity and different adaptation strategies adopted by the local communities in response to coastal flooding in the two administrative regions of Pemba Island. Within each district, three rice-growing areas were purposely selected for the study. Data collection techniques used included interviews, FGDs and physical observation. A total of 140 individuals were interviewed. Findings show that rice farmers in Pemba were highly exposed to sea level rise and coastal floods. As rice farming in the island is entirely rainfed, the rice-growing areas were sensitive to both declining rainfall and coastal flooding. Poor economic conditions and high levels of poverty exacerbated the low capacity of these communities to respond to the impacts of these stressors. Their vulnerability was manifested in overdependence on fishing, seaweed farming and subsistence crop farming which are highly impacted by sea level rise and associated coastal flooding. The observed building of seawalls was contributing to ameliorations of the impacts of coastal floods. There was a need to extend these walls to other villages for a similar purpose. Adaptation options such as the introduction of alternative sources of income or changing the use of the affected rice farms could also help to build resilience amongst rice farmers and thus reducing vulnerability to impacts of climate change.

This study aimed at identifying climatic factors affecting seaweed (Mwani) farming, its associated impacts and adaptation strategies employed by seaweed farmers to cope with the impacts of climate variability and change along the coast of Unguja Island. The study was carried out in four coastal villages of the Island. The villages were chosen because a majority of communities were engaged in the production of Mwani. Household surveys were conducted to collect quantitative data, whereas FGDs and observation were employed to collect qualitative information. A total of 476 households engaged in seaweed farming were used as a sampling frame in the study, where 25% of them (119 households) were randomly selected to participate in the interviews. Results reveal that Mwani production has been widely practised by women (92.4%) and mostly by married people (87.2%). The labour force for seaweed farming fell within the age group 31–49 years (60.3%). About 77.6% and 70% of the respondents were specific Mwani producers and literate, respectively. Despite the challenges Mwani production was the most popular alternative livelihood performed by many rural populations in Zanzibar. Seaweed farmers perceived that seaweed growing in Unguja had been affected by changes in climate factors and non-climatic stressors over the last 20 years. Climatic variables that have affected seaweed included increasing surface water temperatures, wind speed, sea waves, irregular rainfall patterns and salinity. Mwani production had generally declined over the last 5 years. Despite a number of strategies taken by Mwani growers to cope and adapt to the impact of changing climate, new research is needed to develop new adaptation technologies that will help farmers to counteract the effect of desiccation and associated diseases aggravated by climatic variables in the field.

This chapter assesses how fisher-mangrove-dependent societies such as those of the Rufiji Delta in Southern Tanzania are being affected by and what is their capacity to adapt to climate change impacts that are occurring in the area. The objective of the study was not only aimed at improving linkages between the practice of community-level assessments and efforts to develop and implement vulnerability-reducing interventions; it was also an attempt to address the critique about the need for a more integrative, community-engaged approach to assessments in vulnerability scholarship. This study aimed to measure three key dimensions of vulnerability, i.e. exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Socio-economic data was collected from two purposely selected coastal communities in the Rufiji Delta. Sites were selected to provide a spectrum of social and environmental conditions. For each community, data were obtained on exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Findings show that, despite differences in wealth status, community members of the study villages generally shared similar socio-economic characteristics and were thus anticipated to be impacted in similar magnitudes. What was needed was community education on climate change impacts and the presence of social networks to assist in creating awareness on climate change impacts and livelihood diversification to reduce direct dependence on the fisher-mangrove ecosystem. Such livelihood diversification strategies included provision of capital for small businesses and establishing environmentally friendly activities such as compound-based livestock keeping (zero-grazing) and modern beekeeping.

This study has assessed the reef community characteristics so as to describe the community change following a severe threat and adaptively manage coral reefs in response to the 2016 and future bleaching events. The study was conducted in Misali, Bawe, Chumbe, and Mnemba reefs in Zanzibar. Misali reef is located in Pemba Island, whereas the remaining three reefs are located in Unguja Island. The composition of the benthic cover within plots was assessed using the 20-m-long line intercept method. Each site had two plots at least 150 m apart. Four transects were randomly placed within each plot. A total of 63 benthic categories, summarized into 8 major groups, hard corals (49 categories), soft corals, sponges, algae (5 categories), corallimorpharians, hard substrates (4 categories), soft substrate, and others, were monitored. Hard corals were assessed at genus level to improve biodiversity change detection. Coral bleaching levels and coral size class distribution were assessed. A belt transect of 25 m × 1 m was used to sample for coral colonies larger than 10 cm in diameter, whereas sampling for corals smaller than 10 cm, which were considered as recruits, was done using six 1 m² quadrats located along the transect, at fixed intervals of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 m. Four transects per plot were sampled out. The results showed that prevalence of bleaching among surveyed reefs varied between 74% (Misali) and 88% (Bawe). However, the effect of bleaching to coral cover loss was more pronounced in Bawe (37%) and Chumbe reef (19%). Genus Acropora was the most affected coral with higher relative proportions of dead colonies for Misali (85%), Chumbe (63%), and Mnemba (43%) and Porites for Bawe (39%). Genus Porites at Bawe and Acropora at Misali and Mnemba have temporarily lost their dominance to Echinopora, Galaxea, and Porites, respectively. Coral diversity was highest in Misali for both adult and recruit populations and was lowest in Bawe reef. Geographical location, coral community composition, diversity, and reef topography are suggested to be among the determinants of variability in coral bleaching prevalence and impact to coral cover loss.

The main objective of this research was to provide an understanding of how the coastal communities are changing in their vulnerability to climate change and how the livelihood systems are adapting to the change and the implications on coastal resource use, governance and management. Specifically, the study sought to assess the current trends in climate change and variability and their impacts on the livelihoods of the coastal communities; examine the vulnerability of the coastal communities to climate change and other stressors; investigate how local communities are coping with multiple stresses caused by climate change and variability; and examine the implications of the community responses to coastal resource use, governance and management. The study was conducted in eight villages in Lindi Rural and Kilwa Districts, Lindi Region. The “household” was used as a sampling unit. A total of 223 households (7.7% of the total households 2892) were randomly selected as the study sample. Household surveys, key informant interviews and FGDs were conducted to get information on the perception of the local community on climate change and its impacts on individual and community livelihood systems. Findings show that climate change and variability is a reality in the two districts. The data point to increasing temperatures and decreasing rainfall trends. Climate variations that have been taking place have inflicted heavy losses in agriculture, which is the main livelihood source for the majority of the population in the study villages. The high poverty levels in the two districts have worsened the situation, with individual households and communities becoming more vulnerable to climate change impacts. A majority of the poor and intermediate households have been experiencing food shortages for almost half of the year, and sometimes deaths have been reported, as was the case during the severe drought of 1997.

This chapter discusses vulnerability and adaptation of the coastal communities to climate change impacts with the aim of contributing to an understanding on how vulnerability and livelihoods are constructed among coastal communities, with particular focus on Mtwara communities along the southern coast of Mtwara Region, Tanzania. This study aimed at identifying pathways to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience of livelihoods of the concerned coastal communities. The study was conducted in four villages purposively selected based on the existing diversity reflecting issues related to fishing as well as farming livelihoods. The selection of the villages was also made to cover both the coastal strip and the nearby zone, to capture issues related to coastal fishing and farming. A total of 200 households were included in the survey, 122 of whom were males. The research methods used in the two phases included key informant interviews, FGDs, transect walks and on-sight observations. The study also employed an integrated assessment of socioecological systems’ vulnerability to climate change and variability as well as adaptive capacity and the implications of these in resilience. Climatic data from the TMA were also obtained in order to complement the observations from the field. Data from this study show that challenges and impacts associated with climate change are evident in this coastal environment of Tanzania. Common impacts included destruction of coral reefs, coastal erosion, destruction of coastal infrastructures and human settlements. They also included intrusion of seawater into freshwater wells and crop fields in the areas. Sea level rise was probably the most challenging climate change issue in the region since it threatened not only the livelihoods of the already stressed coastal communities but also the economy and integrity of the coastal ecosystems and resources.

Abuse of human rights in conservation initiatives, such as REDD+, wildlife conservation, etc., has raised concern in many project reviews. Few studies have, however, examined the human rights dimensions of conservation and climate change. In this chapter the authors address this gap by showing how outsiders, with the assistance of the state, attempted to control areas historically governed by local residents in the name of conservation and climate change policy initiatives in the Mafia Island and Rufiji Delta, Southern Tanzania. The interventions were implemented with the old-fashioned premise that the villagers were destructive and extravagant resource users. The authors also try to illustrate how the international linkages to worldwide conservation narratives and to development aid by rich countries promoting climate measures in poor countries to try to absolve their carbon emissions revealed the ways in which such vested interests attempted “to misuse their money, power, and influence.”

Reducing the vulnerability of coastal communities to marine climate change requires that communities have some intrinsic capacity to adapt. To assist adaptation planning and the implementation of adaptation strategies, identifying barriers and enablers to adaptation is critical. Adaptive capacity, resource dependence, local climate change exposure, and biological sensitivity were used to assess socioeconomic vulnerability to climate change in five Tanzania mainland coastal districts of Pangani, Rufiji, Kilwa, Lindi, and Mtwara. Such vulnerability assessment was also done in the three island communities of Zanzibar, Pemba, and Mafia. This last chapter of the monograph summarizes the findings of the case study assessments, draws the main conclusions from them, and identifies the best adaptation strategies that utilize available assets, improve adaptive capacity, and reduce socioeconomic vulnerability (Metcalf et al. 2015).