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2017 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

5. Deconstructing the Elements of the s 63 Offence

Authors : Alexandros K Antoniou, Dimitris Akrivos

Published in: The Rise of Extreme Porn

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter provides a detailed examination of the extreme pornography offence. The analysis critically engages with legal scholarship regarding the criminalisation of this type of imagery and considers the way it has influenced the development of the law in this area.

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previous chapter The Mediatisation of the Extreme Pornography Debate

next chapter Prosecutions, Convictions and Sentencing

CJIA 2008 (Commencement No 4 and Saving Provision) Order 2008, SI 2008/2993.

CJIA 2008, s 63(8)(a).

Ibid s 63(8)(b).

Ibid s 63(3).

R v B [2016] EWCA Crim 474, [15] (McCombe LJ).

Ministry of Justice (MOJ) Circular 2009/01, Possession of extreme pornographic images and increase in the maximum sentence for offences under the Obscene Publications Act 1959: Implementation of section 63–67 and section 71 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 (Criminal Law Policy Unit, London: 2009) [8].

Lord P Devlin, Trial by Jury (Stevens, London: 1956).

J Baldwin and M McConville, Jury Trials (Clarendon Press, Oxford: 1979) 132.

CPS Prosecution Policy and Guidance, Extreme Pornography, http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/d_to_g/extreme_pornography/, accessed 15 July 2016.

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [11].

CJIA 2008, s 63(5).

M Sikand (ed), Blackstone’s Guide to The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 (OUP, Oxford: 2009) 80.

Home Office, Consultation: On the Possession of the Extreme Pornographic Material (Home Office Communications Directorate, London: 2005) [37]. A similar approach was adopted in relation to the offence of possession of ‘prohibited’ images of children in the Coroners and Justice Act 2009; see Ministry of Justice (MOJ) Circular 2010/06, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (Criminal Law Policy Unit, London: 2010) 22.

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [17].

Home Office, Consultation (n 13) [38].

Ibid [38].

Sikand (n 12) 81.

CJIA 2008, s 63(7)(a).

CJIA 2008, Explanatory Notes, para 457.

CPS Prosecution Policy and Guidance, Extreme Pornography (n 9).

Ibid.

The English courts have recognised that the transmission of a sexual infection that has serious, perhaps life-threatening, consequences for a person’s health can amount to ‘grievous bodily harm’; R v Dica [2004] QB 1257.

CJIA 2008, s 63(7)(b).

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [16].

CJIA 2008, s 63(9).

Unless such images fall within s 63(7)(a) CJIA 2008 (‘life-threatening’).

C McGlynn and I Ward, ‘Pornography, pragmatism and proscription’ (2009) 36(3) J Law & Soc 327, 349 (fn 143).

Ibid.

CJIA 2008, Explanatory Notes, para 457.

Fisting is the sexual practice which involves the insertion of the entire hand, and sometimes part of the forearm, into the vagina (vaginal fisting) or anus (handballing or anal fisting) of a sexual partner. The medical terms for these practices are ‘brachiovaginal eroticism’ and ‘brachioproctic eroticism’ respectively.

CPS Prosecution Policy and Guidance, Extreme Pornography (n 9)

Ibid.

G Crossman, Liberty’s Second Reading Briefing on the Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill in the House of Lords (Liberty, London: 2007) 19.

CPS Prosecution Policy and Guidance, Extreme Pornography (n 9).

Ibid.

CJIA 2008, s 63(7)(c).

SOA 2003, s 70(1).

CJIA 2008, s 63(7)(d).

SOA 2003, s 69(1) and 69(2).

As identified in Home Office, Consultation (n 13) [5].

Ibid [34].

CPS Prosecution Policy and Guidance, Obscene Publications, http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/l_to_o/obscene_publications/#a07, (accessed 7 January 2012).

G Robertson and A Nicol, Media Law (5th ed, Penguin, London: 2008) 214.

Home Office, Setting the Boundaries: Reforming the law on sex offences, Volume 1 (Home Office Communications Directorate, London: 2000) 126.

Ibid.

Home Office, Consultation (n 13) [48], 23.

CFAA 1937, s 1(1); according to CFAA 1937, s 1(3), offenders may be subject to a fine or imprisonment for a maximum of three months or both.

AWA 2006, ss 4(1) and 4(2). The maximum penalty for an offence under s 4 is imprisonment for a term not exceeding 51 weeks and/or a fine of up to £20,000; s 32(1).

Ibid s 4(3).

RSPCA, Prosecutions Annual Report 2015 (RSPCA, West Sussex: 2015) 16–19.

See also Performing Animals (Regulation) Act 1925, Pet Animals Act 1951 (as amended in 1983), Animal Boarding Establishments Act 1963, Riding Establishments Acts 1964 and 1970; Breeding and Sale of Dogs (Welfare) Act 1999, Breeding of Dogs Act 1991, Breeding of Dogs Act 1973.

S Jones, ‘Criminalise possession of “rape porn,” say campaigners’ The Guardian (London 7 June 2013) 19.

Rape Crisis South London (RASASC) identifies itself as ‘an independent organisation […] providing a high standard of professional, specialist support to female survivors of sexual violence’; see http://www.rasasc.org.uk/history/, accessed 20 July 2015. Other organisations that signed the letter included the End Violence Against Women Coalition, Mumsnet, National Federation of Women’s Institutes, Everydaysexism, No More Page 3 and the Association of Teachers and Lecturers.

Jones (n 55).

Letter to the Editor, ‘Banning rape images’ The Daily Telegraph (London 18 June 2013) 19.

R Osley, ‘Guilty – and Bridger will never walk free’ The Independent (London 31 May 2013) 4.

S Laville, ‘Stuart Hazell searched for incent websites during search for Tia Sharp’ The Guardian (London 14 May 2013) 4.

Jones (n 55); for the links established between these cases and that of Graham Coutts, and the impact of the created signification spiral on the appeal of the campaigners’ claims, see Chapter 4.

S Coates and M Ahmed, ‘Internet to face same restrictions as sex shops’ The Times (London 22 July 2013) 2.

Ministry of Justice (MOJ) Circular 2015/01, Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 (Criminal Law and Legal Policy Unit, London: 2015) 58.

MAH Horvath, L Alys, K Massey, A Pina, M Scally and JR Adler, ‘Basically…Porn is everywhere’: A Rapid Evidence Assessment of the effects that access and exposure to pornography have on children and young people (Office of the Children’s Commissioner, London: 2013).

‘Online pornography to be blocked by default, PM announces’ BBC News (London 22 July 2013), http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-23401076, accessed 14 September 2013.

The Communications Act 2003, s 368E was amended by the Audiovisual Media Services Regulations of 2014, SI 2014/2916 to this effect. The changes came into force on 1 December 2014.

N Watt and C Arthur, ‘Cameron cracks down on “corroding influence” of online pornography’ The Guardian (London 22 July 2013) 6; the full transcript of his speech, as delivered, is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/the-internet-and-pornography-prime-minister-calls-for-action, accessed 14 July 2016.

CJIA 2008, s 63(7A)(a), as amended by Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, s 37(2)(c).

CJIA 2008, s 63(7A)(b), as amended by Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, s 37(2)(c).

Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, Explanatory Notes, para 372.

As noted in Chapter 1, the changes to the s 63 offence commenced on 13 April 2015 and apply only to possession of material which occurs on or after that date. The amendments made to the CJIA 2008 by the 2015 Act do not affect the law as it applies in Northern Ireland.

The Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2010 (CJLSA 2010), s 42, inserted s 51A into the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (CGSA 1982), which created a new offence of possession of EPI. The offence came into effect on 28 March 2011.

CGSA 1982, s 51A(6)(b).

CGSA 1982, s 51A(7).

C McGlynn and E Rackley, Why Criminalise the Possession of Rape Pornography, Durham Law School Briefing Document (Durham University, Durham: 2014).

CJIA 2008, s 66(1)(b) in combination with s 66(2); cf CGSA 1982, s 51C(4)(e).

McGlynn and Rackley, Why Criminalise the Possession of Rape Pornography (n 75).

‘Academics back ban on rape porn’ Durham Times Online (Durham 22 July 2013), http://www.durhamadvertiser.co.uk/news/10564011.Academics_back_ban_on_rape_porn/, accessed 15 July 2016.

Joint Committee on Human Rights, Legislative Scrutiny: (1) Criminal Justice and Courts Bill and (2) Deregulation Bill, (Fourteenth Report) (2013–14, HL 189, HC 1293) 17–19.

P Dominiczak, ‘No harm in simulated rape videos (as long as they are well made), says ministers’ The Daily Telegraph (London 7 June 2013) 8.

Ibid.

A ‘snuff’ film is a motion picture genre that depicts the actual murder of a person, usually a woman, without the aid of special effects; PC Godfrey, ‘Law and the regulation of the obscene’ in S Seidman, N Fischer and C Meeks (eds), Handbook of the New Sexuality Studies (Routledge, Oxon: 2006) 378.

E Roberts, ‘Man cleared as “tiger porn” clip revealed as joke’ Daily Post (Liverpool 1 January 2010) 9.

CJIA 2008, Explanatory Notes, para 459.

C Itzin, A Taket and L Kelly, ‘The evidence of harm to adults relating to exposure to extreme pornographic material: A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA)’ MOJ Research Series 11/07 (MOJ: London, 2007), discussed in Chapter 3.

Memorandum submitted by Dr Clarissa Smith et al. (CJ&I 341), Reader in Sexual Cultures (University of Sunderland, Centre for Research in Media and Cultural Studies) during the Committee stage of the CJIB 2007, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmpublic/criminal/memos/ucm34102.htm, accessed 1 December 2010.

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [12].

HL Deb 3 March 2008, vol 699, col 895 (Lord Hunt of Kings Heath, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Justice and sponsor of the CJIB at that time).

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [13].

Ibid; see also HL Deb 3 March 2008, vol 699, col 895 (Lord Hunt of Kings Heath, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Justice and sponsor of the CJIB at that time).

R v Ping Chen Cheung [2009] EWCA Crim 2965 (CA, Crim Div).

R v Porter [2006] 2 Cr App R 25.

R v Boyesen (1982) 75 Cr App R 51, 53 (Lord Scarman).

R v Lambert [2002] 2 AC 545.

Ibid 580.

R v Boyesen (1982) 75 Cr App R 51, 54 (Lord Scarman); DPP v Brooks (1974) 59 Cr App R 185, 187 (Lord Diplock).

100

Lambert (n 97) 598 (Lord Clyde); see also Warner v Commissioner of the police of Metropolis [1969] 2 AC 256, 311 (Lord Wilberforce).

101

Warner v Commissioner of the police of Metropolis [1969] 2 AC 256, 305 (Lord Pearce); R v Lewis (1988) 87 Cr App R 270, 276 (May LJ).

102

Warner (n 101) 305 (Lord Pearce). As McDonnell states, s 28 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 was enacted with full knowledge of the decision and observations in Warner and allows for the defence of honest and reasonable mistake; M McDonnell, Misuse of Drugs: Criminal Offences and Penalties (Bloomsbury Professional, West Sussex: 2010) 30.

103

Warner (n 101) 305 (Lord Pearce).

104

R v McNamara (1988) 87 Cr App R 246, 251 (Lord Lane CJ).

105

Lambert (n 97) 599 (Lord Clyde).

106

McNamara (n 104) 251 (Lord Lane CJ).

107

Cheung (n 94).

108

The defence in s 65(2)(b) mirrors that in s 160(2)(b) of the CJA 1988 in relation to the offence of possession of IIOC.

109

Cheung (n 94) [15]. A similar approach was taken in R v Collier [2004] EWCA Crim 1411, where the appellant submitted that he had not played the videos and CD-ROMs in question and that, although he had cause to suspect that they contained indecent images, he had no cause to suspect that these were of children; see in particular [29] (Hooper LJ).

110

Cheung (n 94) [17].

111

Ibid [15] (King J).

112

Similar to Warner (n 101) 305 (Lord Pearce).

113

Cheung (n 94) [15].

114

Ibid [19].

115

The Home Office stated in the 2005 consultation paper that the proposals to outlaw the possession of EPI ‘mirror the arrangements already in place in respect of indecent photographs and pseudo-photographs of children’; Home Office, Consultation (n 13) [1].

116

‘Cache’ is a specialised form of computer memory which is designed to speed up the computer by prioritizing its contents. During an Internet browsing session, it holds copies of recently accessed data, e.g. a web page and pictures on it, and retains them in order to accelerate page viewing: the next time a user requests a specific page, this is accessed from the cache on his or her computer, instead of requiring the computer to visit the original web page and images from a distant web server; see I Walden, ‘Computer crime’ in C Reed and J Angel (eds), Computer Law (5th ed, OUP, Oxford: 2003) 301.

117

Porter (n 95).

118

Ibid [26] (Dyson LJ).

119

Atkins and Goodland v DPP [2000] 2 Cr App R 248, 262 (Simon Brown LJ).

120

Walden, ‘Computer Crime’ (n 116) 301.

121

Home Office, Consultation (n 13) [50].

122

Atkins (n 119).

123

C McGlynn and E Rackley, ‘Criminalising extreme pornography: A lost opportunity’ (2009) 4 Crim LR 245, 253; D Ormerod, ‘Indecent photograph of child – Criminal Justice Act 1988 s 160(1)’ [2006] (Aug) Crim LR 748, 750.

124

Ibid.

125

R v Smith and Jayson [2003] 1 Cr App R 13, [36] (Dyson LJ).

126

cf Protection of Children Act 1978, s 1(1).

127

A Gillespie, Child Pornography: Law and Policy (Routledge, Oxon: 2011) 174.

128

Existing legislative and regulatory controls ensure that material which is in breach of the criminal law, or has been created through the commission of a criminal offence, will not be acceptable and cuts or changes will be required; see British Board of Film Classification, The Guidelines (BBFC, London: 2009) 31–3.

129

CJIA 2008, ss 64(1) and 64(2). A classified work is a video work in respect of which a classification certificate has been issued by the BBFC; s 64(7).

130

Sikand (n 12) 82–84

131

CJIA 2008, s 64(7).

132

In January 2010, the VRA 2010 came into force. This simultaneously repealed and immediately revived without amendment the VRA 1984, in order to correct a procedural error made during the passage of the latter.

133

CJIA 2008, s 64(5)(a).

134

Ibid.

135

VRA 1984, s 22(3).

136

CJIA 2008, s 64(5)(b).

137

Sikand (n 12) 83.

138

CJIA 2008, s 64(3)(b).

Ibid s 64(4).

Ibid.

Ibid s 64(3)(b).

Lord Hunt of Kings Heath OBE, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Letter of 8th February 2008 to Rt Hon the Lord Kingsland QC, Ministry of Justice Correspondence about Government Amendments, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.justice.gov.uk/docs/crim-justice-corres-gov-amends.pdf, accessed 14 May 2011.

143

Similar to the offence of possession of IIOC; see Collier (n 109).

144

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [25].

145

CJIA 2008, s 65(2)(a).

146

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [23].

147

Atkins and Goodland v DPP (n 119) 256 (S Brown LJ).

148

Ibid 257 (S Brown LJ).

149

CJIA 2008, s 65(2)(b).

150

Ibid s 65(2)(c).

151

J O’Neill, ‘Porn found on phone’ Sunderland Echo Online (Sunderland 22 July 2010), http://www.sunderlandecho.com/news/local/porn_found_on_phone_1_1503344, accessed 22 May 2011.

Ibid.

Ibid.

CJIA 2008, s 65(1).

G Crossman, Liberty’s Second Reading Briefing on the Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill in the House of Lords (Liberty, London: 2008) [33].

156

Ibid.

157

CJIA 2008, s 66, as amended by the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, s 37(3).

158

CJIA 2008, s 66(A2)(a).

159

MOJ Circular 2009/01 (n 6) [28].

160

CJIA 2008, s 66(A2)(b).

161

Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, Explanatory Notes, para 373.

162

Ibid s 66(3)(a).

163

Ibid s 66(3)(b).

164

R v Donovan [1934] 2 KB 498, 507 (Swift J).

165

Ibid 509 (Swift J).

166

Attorney-General’s Reference (No 6 of 1980) [1981] QB 715, 719 (Lord Lance CJ).

167

M Giles, ‘R v Brown: Consensual harm and the public Interest’ (1994) 57(1) MLR 101, 104.

168

D Ormerod, Smith and Hogan Criminal Law: Cases and Materials (9th ed, OUP, Oxford: 2006) 626.

169

R v Slingsby [1995] Crim LR 570; R v Meachen [2006] EWCA Crim 2414.

170

Attorney-General’s Reference (No 6 of 1980) (n 166) 719 (Lord Lance CJ).

171

R v Jones; Lee Smith; Nicholas; Blackwood; Muir (1986) 83 Cr App R 375, 378 (McCowan J); the Courts-Martial Appeal Court also accepted the ‘horseplay’ exception in R v Aitken; Bennett; Barson [1992] 1 WLR 1006, 1020 (Cazalet J).

172

R v Wilson [1997] QB 47, 50 (Russell LJ).

173

R v Brown; Lucas; Jaggard; Laskey; Carter [1994] 1 AC 212, HL.

174

Ibid 236 (Lord Templeman).

175

Laskey and Ors v The UK [1997] 24 EHRR 39, [50].

176

R v Emmett (1999) Times, 15 October; Independent, 19 July.

177

McGlynn and Rackley, ‘A lost opportunity’ (n 123) 255.

178

JS Milner, CA Dopke and JL Crouch, ‘Paraphilia not otherwise specified: Psychopathology and theory’ in D Richard Laws and WT O’Donohue (eds), Sexual Deviance: Theory, Assessment and Treatment (The Guilford Press, New York: 2008) 395. It is distinguished from necrophilia, since it is sometimes directed towards the living; see RL Vanden Bergh and JF Kelly, ‘Vampirism: A review with new observations’ (1964) 11 Archives of General Psychiatry 543.

179

B Love, The Encyclopedia of Unusual Sexual Practices (2nd ed, Abacus, London: 2002) 527.

180

Donovan (n 137) 509 (Swift J).

181

CJIA 2008, s 66(A2)(c).

182

Ibid s 66(A1)(b) (emphasis added).

183

McGlynn and Rackley, ‘A lost opportunity’ (n 123) 250.

184

A Aggrawal, Forensic and Medico-legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices (CRC Press, London: 2009) 379; E Roudinesco, Our Dark Side: A History of Perversion (Polity Press, Cambridge: 2009) 124.

185

One of San Francisco’s leather bars holds an event called ‘S&M Circus’, where people dress as different animals and are taught to perform the same as their animal counterparts. The Roman emperor Nero would play a game where he dressed in skins of wild animals and attacked the genitals of people tied to stakes; see Love (n 179) 551–2.

186

Directive 2000/31/ EC; the E-Commerce Directive was implemented by the Electronic (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/2013).

187

CJIA 2008, Sch 14, para 1(2). However, service providers established in an EEA state other than the UK are excluded from prosecution for the offence of possession of EPI; CJIA 2008, Sch 14, para 2(2).

188

Ibid Sch 14, paras 3 to 5.

189

Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, s 37(5).

190

CJIA 2008, s 67, as amended by the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, s 37(4).

191

CJIA 2008, s 67(2) and 67(5)(a).

192

CJIA 2008, s 67(3).

193

SOA 2003, s 70(2)(b) and s 69(3)(b).

194

The new sentence does not apply to offences committed before the commencement of this section; CJIA 2008, Sch 27, para 25.

195

SOA 2003, Sch 3, paras 35A and 92A, inserted by CJIA 2008, Sch 26, para 58(2).

196

J Petley, ‘Something must be done’ Index on Censorship (10 June 2008), http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2008/06/something-must-be-done/, accessed 10 May 2013.

197

E Wilkinson, ‘Perverting visual pleasure: Representing Sadomasochism’ (2009) 12(2) Sexualities 181, 192.

198

See Brown et al. (n 173) 237 (Lord Templeman): ‘[…] pleasure derived from the infliction of pain is an evil thing.’

199

C Ashford, ‘Barebacking and the “Cult of Violence”: Queering the Criminal law’ (2010) 74(4) Journal of Criminal Law 339, 356.

200

Ibid 339.

201

Ibid 340.

202

S Foster, ‘Possession of extreme pornographic images, public protection and human rights’ (2010) 15(1) Coventry Law Journal 21, 27.

203

Dudgeon v The United Kingdom (App No 7525/76) (1981) 4 EHRR 149.

204

Ibid [52].

205

Foster (n 202) 27; cf R v Smethurst [2001] EWCA Crim 772, [24] (Woolf LCJ), where it was held that the offence of making indecent photographs of children had the legitimate aim of protecting children from being exploited and therefore did not contravene the provisions of Articles 8 and 10.

206

Dudgeon (n 203) [60]: ‘The Court cannot overlook the marked changes which have occurred in this regard in the domestic law of the member States.’

207

C Davies, The Strange Death of Moral Britain (Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New Jersey: 2004) 155.

208

P Mahoney, ‘Universality versus subsidiarity in the Strasbourg case law on free speech: Explaining some recent judgments’ (1997) 4 European Human Rights Law Review 364, 378.

209

Handyside v The United Kingdom (App No 5493/72) (1979) 1 EHRR 737.

210

Ibid [48].

211

McGlynn and Ward (n 27) 349.

212

Ibid 350.

213

Ibid; see also Home Office, Consultation (n 13) 1: ‘We are determined to act against publishers where we can but we believe that individuals also need to take greater responsibility.’

214

F Attwood and C Smith, ‘Extreme concern: Regulating “dangerous pictures” in the United Kingdom’ (2010) 37(1) Journal of Law and Society 171, 172.

215

McGlynn and Ward (n 27) 327.

216

Attwood and Smith (n 214) 172.

217

McGlynn and Ward (n 27) 349.

218

S Easton, ‘Criminalising the possession of extreme pornography: Sword or shield’ (2011) 75(5) Journal of Criminal Law 391, 398.

Ibid 397.

Ibid.

Ibid 400–401.

P Bradshaw, ‘Hostel’ The Guardian (London 24 March 2006) 7.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

See BBFC, Releases, ‘Hostel (2005)’, http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/hostel-2005, accessed 15 July 2016.

227

JF Rauger, ‘Les films préférés des critiques du “Monde” en 2006’ Le Monde Online (Paris 27 December 2006), http://www.lemonde.fr/cinema/article_interactif/2006/12/27/les-films-preferes-des-critiques-du-monde-en-2006_849933_3476_2.html, accessed 4 June 2013.

228

LH Leigh, ‘Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008: Extreme Pornography’ (2008) 172(46) JPN 752, 755.

229

McGlynn and Rackley, ‘A lost opportunity’ (n 123) 249.

230

Ibid; see also E Rackley and C McGlynn, ‘Prosecuting the possession of extreme pornography: A misunderstood and mis-used law’ (2013) 5 Crim LR 400, 405.

231

McGlynn and Rackley, ‘A lost opportunity’ (n 123) 259.

232

C McGlynn and E Rackley, ‘The politics of porn’ (2007) 157(7285) NLJ 1142, 1143.

233

McGlynn and Rackley, ‘A lost opportunity’ (n 123) 258.

234

T Horeck, Public Rape: Representing Violation in Fiction and Film (Routledge, Oxon: 2004) 4.

235

N Strossen, Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex and the Fight for Women’s Rights (New York University Press, New York: 2000) 172–3.

236

JS MacKellar, Rape: The Bait and the Trap, A balanced, humane, up-to-date analysis of its causes and control (Crown Publishers, New York: 1975) 51.

237

Attwood and Smith (n 214) 188.

238

K Taylor, ‘Criminalising extreme porn’ New Statesman Online (London 28 October 2008), http://www.newstatesman.com/uk-politics/2008/10/extreme-porn-violence-women, accessed 15 May 2013.

239

Home Office, Consultation (n 13) i, 1, [11], [57].

240

Petley (n 196).

241

R Dworkin, ‘Is there a right to pornography?’ (1981) 1 Oxford Journal Legal Studies 177, 194.

242

P Johnson, ‘Law, morality and disgust: The regulation of “extreme pornography” in England and Wales’ (2010) 19(2) Social and Legal Studies 147, 159.

243

Ibid 156.

244

Ibid 159 (emphasis in the original); citing A Young, ‘Aesthetic vertigo and the jurisprudence of disgust’ (2000) 11(3) Law and Critique 241.

245

Leigh (n 228) 757.

246

HL Deb 3 March 2008, vol 699, col 894.

247

Sikand (n 12) 4.

248

E Metcalfe and S Ireland, Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill: JUSTICE Briefing for House of Lords Second Reading (JUSTICE, London: 2008) [14].

249

Subject to the principle established in Brown (n 173); AD Murray, ‘The reclassification of extreme pornographic images’ (2009) 72(1) MLR 73, 89.

250

Murray (n 249) 90.

Animal Welfare Act 2006

Cinematograph Films (Animals) Act 1937

Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008

Obscene Publications Act 1959

Offences against the Person Act 1861

Sexual Offences Act 2003

Video Recordings Acts 1984 and 2010

Watt N and Arthur C, ‘Cameron cracks down on “corroding influence” of online pornography’ The Guardian (London 22 July 2013).

Title: Deconstructing the Elements of the s 63 Offence
Authors: Alexandros K Antoniou
Dimitris Akrivos
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: The Rise of Extreme Porn
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-48970-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-48971-1

Copyright Year: 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48971-1_5

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