Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security

Mineral deposits have been classified by their geologic and mineralogic characteristics for decades, but the recognition that mineral deposits could be classified by their environmental characteristics is relatively new. In the past 5 years, advancements have been made by building on the earlier work of economic geologists who classified geologic characteristics. Several approaches have been taken that range from wholesale assessments of large areas (millions of square kilometres) to detailed assessments of individual watersheds or individual mines. Current efforts in the development of geoenvironmental models include the assemblage of diverse database and encompassing geologic, geochemical, geophysical, hydrologic, and other data. Although the geologic information layers are most important in classifying the environmental signatures of mineral deposits, other data, which include the delineation of ecological regions, or ecoregions, provide a framework within which geoenvironmental models can best be developed. For instance, although the economic classification of ore deposits is best accomplished by grouping geologic, mineralogic, and depositional characteristics, the environmental classification of ore deposits may be best accomplished by grouping according to geochemistry, mineralogy and hydrology within the ecoregion framework. Thus, economically different deposits in one ecoregion might have greater environmental similarities than similar deposits in different ecoregions. This is because the weathering behaviour of mineral deposits is controlled by climatic, as well as geologic, properties. This presentation provides an overview of the development of mineral deposit environmental models and discussions of the most important data types to be included in the models. This paper presents the current state of the art of geoenvironmental models, suggests a new framework for the models, and sets the stage for the topical presentations that follow in this volume.

Remote sensing data and present-day analytical methods provide excellent tools for aiding in mineral resource and geoenvironmental assessments. Modem digital imaging systems, both airborne and satellite-borne, are providing a new array of coarse to fine spatial resolution and broad to narrow spectral resolution image data that are suitable for integration into geographic information systems (GIS). GIS evaluation of these data, along with information from many other sources, must be considered when conducting these assessment studies. The scope of remote sensing applications is changing from an emphasis of interpreting photographic images to data analysis and integration with other digital geospatial information. This integration substantially leverages the value of remotely sensed data, especially in the context of rapid growth and development of the quality and availability of digital information in general, and of satellite and airborne image information in particular. Various types of remotely sensed data have been used in mineral and environmental studies conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The scales of these applications have ranged from broad regional characterizations to local, site specific studies. Multispectral satellite data and airborne magnetic and radiometric data were compiled for the State of Montana, north-central USA. These layers of information were integrated to assist in identifYing areas at possible risk of surfacewater contamination by metals derived from past and present mining activity, from natural sources, or both. Imaging spectroscopy (hyperspectral) data have been used by the USGS to effectively map the locations of acid-producing minerals at mine sites in the Leadville mining district of the Colorado Mineral Belt, west-central USA. Thermal infrared image data have been used to identifY source rocks of alluvial materials associated with environmental problems in national parks, and to produce maps of primary rock composition and alteration information. Together, these applications of remotely sensed information have been used to (1) identify areas of potential environmental concern at regional and local scales, (2) assist in prioritizing drainage basins for mitigation efforts, (3) prioritize mine waste piles within selected drainage basins for remediation, and (4) guide remedial work by mapping geologically favorable and unfavorable repository sites.

This chapter introduces some results obtained from new applications of digital photogrammetry for forest growth and topographic changes. They are byproducts of our attempt toward the development of the field of photo-ecometrics. The goal is to provide low-cost yet accurate estimates of as many important biophysical parameters as can be measured and inferred with high resolution remote sensing data. Six strategies for information extraction from remotely sensed data are introduced: image classification, statistical regression, linear feature extraction, 3D surface modeling, radiative transfer modeling and inversion, and change monitoring. Accuracies of traditional multispectral image analysis algorithms of remotely sensed data are low. Traditional photo interpretation is error prone and expensive. We advocate the use of digital surface model (DSM) that contains the elevation of all surface features such as buildings and trees rather than digital elevation model (DEM) that has been traditionally used only for the terrain. Data fusion should not be considered only as integrating data acquired from different sources but also data (information) extracted from the same source of data with different strategies. This can be partly realized by new image analysis strategies that make use of the 3D surface information from stereo images and the multispectral, texture and contextual information inherent in the imagery. With digital photogrammetry, it has been proven that digital aerial images can be georeferenced and orthorectified to an accuracy of one to several meters. With the georeferenced and orthorectified digital images and many biophysical parameters accurately determined we can detect changes of species composition, height, crown closure, and diameter of forested land and topographic features. These same techniques will not only significantly improve our ability to economically assess the accuracy of vegetation and thematic maps but also provide alternatives to detailed mapping of geomorphological features such as landslides, surface mining, land erosion and material deposition. Illustrated in this contribution is the usefulness of DSM and orthophotos generated with digital photogrammetry in the monitoring of changes gully erosion, water channel incision and coastal salt flat zone displacements.

Geoscientific information is essential for assessing not only mineral resource favorability, but also geoenvironmental hazard potential. The health of any ecosystem is directly related to its underlying geology. Within every watershed, concentrations of metals and other elements in ground and surface waters, sediments, soils, plants, many animals, and humans are intimately connected to the geologic “landscape” of the area. Comprehensive, unbiased geoscientific information is therefore fundamentally and critically important in effectively assessing current, as well as past and future impacts on the environment caused by natural and/or anthropogenic changes.A multidisciplinary team of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists was assembled to study the geoenvironmental assessment process and to develop applications for the State of Montana, north-central USA. Areas of expertise represented in the team include geology, geochemistry, remote sensing, and geophysics. A variety of “layers” of digital information related to these various disciplines was compiled for the project.Several questions typically arise in assessment projects that involve numerous information components: (1) what categories of which data are relevant to the study objectives; (2) what relative importance (weights) should appropriately be ascribed to the data layers; and (3) how should the layers be combined to effectively achieve the objectives of the study. The Montana project has relied heavily on geographic information systems (GIS) applications to attempt to address these questions in pursuit of the objective of mapping geoenvironmental potential for acidic, metal-rich drainage. However, methodologies utilized in this project could effectively be applied to other geoenvironmental questions or for assessing potential for mineral resources.Mining districts within the State were characterized according to their acid generating and acid buffering potentials. These properties were assigned according to considerations of abundance of sulfides and of calcium carbonate in the mining areas. Those areas that were characterized as high in acid generating potential and low to moderate in acid buffering capacity were chosen as prototypical of areas to be identified in the geoenvironmental assessment. Various classes of each information layer were considered as “candidates” for inclusion in the overall assessment model and were tested for significance of spatial association with the reference, or prototype, areas. This was accomplished using the GIS to calculate the “probability ratio” of each class, representing the relative likelihood of finding the class within the reference areas versus elsewhere in the study area. These computations not only guided determination of which data layers were relevant to the assessment, but also what weights should appropriately be assigned to them. The resulting weighted “submodels” were combined, using various methods, to produce composite models and derivative maps showing relative potential for acidic, metal-rich drainage.

This contribution provides an analytical strategy applicable in mineral exploration to not only predicting the location of undiscovered mineral resources but also estimating the probability of the next discovery at that location. In addition, the strategy is applicable to the likely environmental impacts of developing the resources as a result of the exploration. General concepts of spatial prediction, of the likelihood ratio model, and of a two-stage approach to derive the probability of the next discovery in each prediction class are introduced.Two examples of predictions of undiscovered deposits are discussed for the respective extreme situations of rich and poor spatial databases. They are not yet fully developed to cover environmental-impact prediction; nevertheless, they provide the basic decisional elements as the estimator of the conditional probability of the next discovery applicable to either resource exploration or to environmental protection. The estimation of the probability of the next discovery through the validation technique is the most critical element in spatial prediction modeling. A review of deposit and geoenvironmental deposit models provides the foundations of predictive analysis in sustainable development terms.

Mineral-deposit models are the basis for consistent resource-assessment, exploration, and environmental risk analysis methodologies. To reduce uncertainties in these methodologies, improved predictability of deposit occurrence is essential. Advances in understanding about structure and tectonics and the geology of earthquakes, together with improved insights as to how fluid flow is coupled with active deformation, heat transport, and solute transport, provide the framework for integrating mechanical phenomena into deposit models. With this framework, it is possible, for a given deposit type, to predict where in structural systems hydrothermal systems may occur, the chances that significant concentrations of ore may be expected, and where in larger vein arrays ore bodies may be localized. Discussions of porphyry copper and related polymetallic veins illustrate the value of this new generation of deposit models.

Construction and maintenance of the infrastructure is dependent on such raw materials as aggregate (crushed stone, sand, and gravel). Despite this dependence, urban expansion often works to the detriment of the production of those essential raw materials. The failure to plan for the protection and extraction of aggregate resources often results in increased consumer cost, environmental damage, and an adversarial relation between the aggregate industry and the community.As an area grows, the demand for aggregate resources increases, and industries that produce these materials are established. Aggregate is a low-cost commodity, and to keep hauling costs at a minimum, the operations are located as close to the market as possible. As metropolitan areas grow, they encroach upon established aggregate operations. New residents in the vicinity of pits and quarries object to the noise, dust, and truck traffic associated with the aggregate operation. Pressure is applied to the local government to limit operation hours and truck traffic.In addition to encroaching on established aggregate operations, urban growth commonly covers unmined aggregate resources. Frequently urban growth occurs without any consideration of the resource or an analysis of the impact of its loss. The old idea that aggregate resources can be found anywhere is false. New aggregate operations may have to be located long distances from the markets. The additional expense of the longer transport of resources must be passed on to consumers in the community. In many instances, the new deposit is of inferior quality compared with the original source, yet it is used to avoid the expense of importing high-quality material from a more-distant source.Some governmental, including city, provincial or state, and national, agencies, have enacted regulations to help maintain access to prime aggregate resources. Although regulations have met with variable success, some policy or regulation to protect aggregate resources is worth consideration.A basic requirement of any aggregate resource policy or regulation is the knowledge of the geographic distribution, volumes, and quality of aggregate resources. This knowledge commonly is obtained through geologic mapping and characterization of aggregate resources. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Decision Support Systems (DSS) provide excellent tools to help present and evaluate the information in a manner that is understandable by public decisionmakers.

Nearly every community in nearly every industrialized or industrializing country is dependent on aggregate resources (sand, gravel, and stone) to build and maintain their infrastructure. Indeed, even agrarian communities depend on well-maintained transportation systems to move produce to markets. Unfortunately, aggregate resources necessary to meet societal needs cannot be developed without causing environmental impacts.Most environmental impacts associated with aggregate mining are benign. Extracting aggregate seldom produces acidic mine drainage or other toxic affects commonly associated with mining of metallic or energy resources. Other environmental health hazards are rare. Most of the impacts that are likely to occur are short-lived, easy to predict and easy to observe. By employing responsible operational practices and using available technology, most impacts can be controlled, mitigated or kept at tolerable levels and can be restricted to the immediate vicinity of the aggregate operation.The most obvious environmental impact of aggregate mining is the conversion of land use, most likely from undeveloped or agricultural land use, to a (temporary) hole in the ground. This major impact is accompanied by loss of habitat, noise, dust, blasting effects, erosion, sedimentation, and changes to the visual scene.Mining aggregate can lead to serious environmental impacts. Societal pressures can exacerbate the environmental impacts of aggregate development. In areas of high population density, resource availability, combined with conflicting land use, severely limits areas where aggregate can be developed, which can force large numbers of aggregate operations to be concentrated into small areas. Doing so can compound impacts, thus transforming what might be an innocuous nuisance under other circumstances into severe consequences. In other areas, the rush to build or update infrastructure may encourage relaxed environmental or operational controls. Under looser controls, aggregate operators may fail to follow responsible operational practices, which can result in severe environmental consequences. The geologic characteristics of aggregate deposits (geomorphology, geometry, physical and chemical quality) play a major role in the intensity of environmental impacts generated as a result of mining. Mining deposits that are too thin or contain too much unsuitable material results in the generation of excessively large mined areas and large amounts of waste material. In addition, some geologic environments, such as active stream channels, talus slopes, and landslide-prone areas, are dynamic and respond rapidly to outside stimuli, which include aggregate mining. Some geomorphic areas and (or) ecosystems serve as habitat for rare or endangered species. Similarly, some geomorphic features are themselves rare examples of geologic phenomena. Mining aggregate might be acceptable in some of these areas but should be conducted only after careful consideration and then only with extreme prudence. Failure to do so can lead to serious, long-lasting environmental consequences, either in the vicinity of the site or even at locations distant from the site.Mining generates a disturbed landscape. The after-mining use of the land is an important aspect of reducing environmental impacts of aggregate extraction. The development of mining provides an economic base and use of a natural resource to improve the quality of human life. Wisely restoring our environment requires a design plan and product that responds to a site’s physiography, ecology, function, artistic form, and public perception. Forward-looking mining operators who employ modern technology and work within the natural restrictions can create a second use of mined-out aggregate operations that often equals or exceeds the pre-mined land use. Poor aggregate mining practices, however, commonly are accompanied by poor reclamation practices, which can worsen already existing environmental damage.With environmental concerns, operating mines and reclaimed mine sites can no longer be considered isolated from their surroundings. Site analysis of mine works needs to go beyond site-specific information and relate to the regional context of the greater environment. Understanding design approach can turn features perceived by the public as being undesirable (mines and pits) into something perceived as being desirable.

The application of the tectonic model for the porphyry copper/polymetallic vein kin-deposit system, proposed by the authors and used to assess the undiscovered metallic mineral resources of northern Hungary, is illustrated here for the Matra Mountains, northern Hungary. This model is based on the evolution of strain features (duplexes and flower structures) developed in the strike-slip fault systems in continental crust above a subducting plate and the localization of mineral deposits within them.The application of this model relied on the integration of data from the literature, satellite images, and geologic maps. During the time of the mineralization (15-16 Ma), the regional-scale tectonic framework was dominated by a right-lateral, pull-apart structure cored by the Mátra Mountains volcanic complex. While synthesizing these data, it was found that the tectonic elements identified on the satellite images could be closely associated with the location of the vein mineralization discovered in the Mátra Mountains. Displays are presented that illustrate how the individual tectonic and geologic elements (faults, volcanic rocks, and sedimentary basins), as well as the relation of the mineralized structures to the complex array of extensional and shear faults that are created inside of a strike-slip fault duplex, are associated.

This lecture explores the various types of risk that arise in the exploitation of mineral resources and describes ways in which they can be identified, assessed, quantified and managed. The emphasis is on the quantification of risk and on the use of quantitative methods for the visualization of risk.

This contribution describes a quantitative tool designed to support resource management decision-making. The Hierarchical Model of Resource Management is based on the assumption that the publics’ objectives for resource management are a function of their values and further, that influence flows down, whereas information with respect to the state of the world and the consequences of fulfilling objectives flows back up. The purpose of the Hierarchical Model is to facilitate the public participation process. It can be quantified with either a measurement approach or a preference approach. The measurement model provides a means for linking values to behaviors and has been derived from the traditional values-attitudes-behaviors framework widely accepted in social psychology and consumer behavior literature. Data are collected via survey and analyzed using a variety of mathematical and statistical methods, including structural equations, clustering and descriptive statistics. The preference model provides a means for linking objectives for natural resource management to choices among potential implementation strategies. The approach is based on decision theoretic methods that are widely used to evaluate alternatives involving multiple objectives. This approach follows a path from strategic objectives to fundamental and means objectives, to preference functions, ending with preference ordering and choice. The measurement and preference paths run in parallel, but have significant differences that are explained in the text. Finally, the Hierarchical model is placed within a recursive decision framework that is based on the principles of adaptive management. The range of information provided by the two approaches for quantifying the Hierarchical Model provide information that will be essential if public preferences are to incorporated into resource management decision making.

This chapter illustrates two types of evaluation techniques for environmental and resource planning: economic valuations and multicriteria analysis. A general scheme for the evaluation is first introduced as a reference for the techniques described in the chapter: Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA), Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) and Multicriteria Analysis (MCA). These techniques are among the most applied in environmental and resource planning. The chapter first describes BCA and CEA within a general framework of welfare economics and efficient allocation of resources. It then describes the main features of the methods and the most frequently used techniques to associate monetary values to environmental resources. The usefulness, applicability and limits of these techniques are discussed. Multicriteria analysis is then introduced as a representative of a class of methods that do not require monetary valuations. The chapter focuses on a particular MCA technique, value functions, and describes the main features of the methodology and the differences compared to BCA and CEA. Instead of describing the technicalities of value functions, the chapter focus is on the most critical application issues, which determine the added value of MCA in practice.

This paper discusses the problems related to the implementation of Environmental Systems in compliance with ISO 14001 standard in the context of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) in nortwestern Italy.Results are here presented of a survey performed in the period January – June 1998 on a sample of industries and breeding firms in the Province of Cuneo. The survey aimed at the determination of the basic requirements for building an ISO 14001-compliant Environmental System. It presents the main implementation issues together with possible operational choices.Many Quality Systems were implemented in compliance with the ISO 9001 standard, that is today well known, and useful to participate in Tenders. This paper points out how the ISO 9001 can be considered as a basis on which to build an integrated system able to comply with the ISO 14001 requirements in terms of organisational structure, documental management, and assessment & audit criteria.

Understanding the interactions between earth systems and social economic systems is of crucial importance to assess, manage and steer towards sustainable environmental and social economic systems. This is especially true for social economic activities exploiting the earth systems as a natural resource, such as mining of natural resources.In assessing the consequences of each social economic activity, such as mining minerals or coal, the full life cycle should be considered in terms of both environmental and social economic impacts. The typical asset life cycle should include exploration, appraisal, development, production and last but not least abandonment. Typically the asset life-cycles of minerals or coal mines are finite lasting up to tens of years (being both storage resources), while the asset life-cycle of groundwater production could be infinite and in equilibrium, while its is recharged (being a sustainable resource). Impacts of all relevant mining scenarios should be assessed and should be compared to the desired state of the earth and social economic systems in each phase of the life cycle, optimizing decision-making. In early phases of the life cycle, impacts can only roughly be estimated and decision parameters will contain large uncertainties (including opportunities and risks), while in later phases more accurate estimates can be made and decisions will be more straightforward.Most mining companies are very good in assessing economic and social impact indicators, but to a lesser extent the environmental impact indicators. Economic impact is normally expressed in yearly cash flows and results in indicators such as net present values (NPV), return on investment (ROI), etc. Social impact includes employment and health indicators, etc. Earth systems impact is assessed for each of the following four interactions between these and socioeconomic systems: • geo-resources, where earth material reserves are extracted (such as minerals, coal, water,);• geo-space, where materials are stored in the subsurface (such as waste, pipelines, buildings),;• geo-risks, which are a risks to social economic activities (such as land subsidence, floods);• geo-environment, where the earth systems are disturbed (such as soil and water pollution).Each type of interactions has to be assessed and expressed in relevant indicator values, the first two expressed as potential benefits or values and the last two as potential risks or losses. The main economic and environmental aspects of asset life cycle management are discussed, illustrated with examples from similar industries.The conclusions are that there is a need for a systematic and integrated approach in assessing environmental and social economic impacts throughout the asset life cycle of mining operations. It is very important for companies to co-operate with all stakeholders, such as governmental ministries and surveys, regional and local authorities. Therefore a fast, clear and sound communication is essential.In this paper examples will be given how Information and Communication Technology (ICT) products can greatly facilitate these new business requirements. Examples of the use of telecommunication, data management, applications and decision support systems using WWW technology are shown.

The concepts of industrial ecosystem, ecological industrial carrying capacity and the concept of ecological footprint are reviewed and discussed in the context of sustainable development. It is stressed that bioremediation is offering useful technological tools for Industrial Ecology and in particular for the ecological sustainability of mining activities.

Because the environment is considered to be a resource in itself, it is worth characterizing and assessing in terms of such meaningful indicators as land use/cover change and aquifer vulnerability. This contribution aims to validate past and present spatially distributed data such as maps, aerial photographs, satellite images and other types of numerical or qualitative data, for the purpose of representing natural and human-induced processes that affect environmental quality. In areas of intense underground coal mining, systematic photo-interpretation of airborne and space-borne images can identify changes in land-cover through time that may reveal trends in mining development and its effects towards degradation or rehabilitation of the environment.Two applications are discussed in which spatial data analysis contributes to the environmental characterization of an area of the Czech Republic that has been deeply affected by underground coal mining and by the industrial activities dependent on coal as a source of energy. Although the applications contain several aspects of generality for geo-environmental analyses, they also reveal a particular need for data-quality assessment within administrative and social conditions that only recently have allowed cartographic data and aerial photographs to become freely available. Hence, sensitivity analysis and reliability testing can lead to operational strategies in predictive modeling and in the necessary data capture.

The Tharsis-Lagunazo area, in the Province of Huelva, southwestern Spain, has a long history of mining. For over three thousand years, the contour of the land has continuously been modified and re-modified by mining activities and unplanned mine wastes to provide the present landscape. This study, making use of Lands at TM imagery from 1984 and black and white aerial photographs from 1973, was able to assess the implication and impact of mining on this area. From these datasets, it was possible to detect the number of open-pit mines, waste rock dumps, tailings, slime dams, land use/cover changes and subsurface groundwater pollution.Preliminary results of the investigation show the indiscriminate dumping of solid mining waste to be rampant wherever land is available. All in all, no diagnostic changes with regards to the extent of the mining pits could be deciphered from the two datasets available. No new open pit sites and no extension in area coverage of the existing ones could be confirmed from the remotely sensed data and field mapping. Changes however, were evident within the bushy vegetation, known as “jara” in Spain, and the eucalyptus growing areas surrounding the mines including new dumpsites in areas identified as barren from the 1973 aerial photos. These are evident when comparing the aerial photos of 1973 with the Landsat TM of 1984. The type of landscape defacement without any concern for rehabilitation is another major environmental concern clearly vivid from both the remotely sensed datasets used.

The possibility of disposing of selected kinds of industrial waste into abandoned mines, or into the exploited parts of active mines, belongs at present to topical problems in the Czech Republic. In the Czech part of the Lower Silesian Basin, the mining activities have stopped in 1995 and the mines are now under a process of liquidation. Mine workings in both the Odolov and Katefina Mines were simply flooded and their shafts were filled by sorted rock material. The first negative impacts on groundwater quality were documented for this method of liquidation. The Mine Jan Sverma Mine was liquidated instead by filling of the mine workings with a floated self-solidifying ash mixture. Finally the mine workings were sealed with the fill that had the hydraulic properties of impermeable rocks. All the mines considered represent independent geo-hydrodynamic systems without connection with other hydro-geological structures in the study area. The hydro-geological problems of the two liquidation methods are assessed in this contribution.

This contribution provides an overview of the temporary and constant impacts of underground coal-ining activity on the environment with a special emphasis on groundwater quality and quantity protection in the Czech Republic. Recommendations are made for the monitoring of mining influences on water resources in the Ostrava-Karviná coal-mning district.

I would like to continue my technical lecture on how the continental crust fractures under far-field tectonic stress, but my stress-strain ellipsoid transparencies that are so necessary to this discussion are missing from my lecture notes. I suspect that they have been stolen by someone in this room.

The problem of environmental security is connected to changes in the natural environment as a result of increased stress and the incidence and consequences of extreme events. One of the major problems of environmental security in The Kyrgyz Republic is radiation security connected with conditions of safe storage and destruction of uranium tailings.The preliminary results of a radiation survey are presented from an investigation of the public health status in mountain regions of The Kyrgyz Republic, near densely populated areas and ground water reservoirs.

In coal mining areas subsurface coal fires waste the coal reserves, make mining difficult or impossible, endanger human lives and the exhaust gases damage the environment. Their location, development and size largely depend on the geological setting, which also determines the possible prevention and fighting methods. Information technology combined with environmental modelling can help the fight against the existing coal fires and support the prevention of fires in the: 0Detection and mapping of coal fires.1Definition of areas at coal fire risk.2Setting priorities in coal fire fighting.3Definition of optimal fighting and prevention methods.COALMAN is a coal-fire monitoring and management software, which was programmed using Visual Basic for the user interface and the database management procedures and using IL WIS (the Integrated Land and Water Information System, developed at ITC in The Netherlands: http://www.itc.nl/ILWIS for the GIS and remote sensing functions. It comprises of the following main modules: 0A database.1Standard database management functions.2GIS and image processing functions.3Special procedures and models.4Quantification of the parameters of coal fires from satellite images.5Mapping of coal fire risk and hazard.5Monitoring the development of coal fires and the results of fire fighting measures.The primary users of COALMAN will be the fire fighting and prevention team of the Ningxia Province, in China. The development is carried out as a part of a project financed by the Dutch and the Chinese governments.

The attenuation of Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn originating from acidic ore mine leachate is studied in a natural wetland stream environment in central Sweden. A sequential chemical extraction procedure is used to investigate fractions that are expected to act as potential sinks of the six metals studied in the stream sediment. Geochemical abundances, geochemical gradients and geochemical flow patterns are analysed and modelled and the stream sediments are interpreted as an oxidising landscape geochemical barrier. Sampling locations and geochemical barriers are identified using landscape geochemical methods and GIS techniques. For data modelling robust statistical methods of Exploratory Data Analysis are used to treat small sample sizes with multi-modal character and outlying values. The spatial variability of metal retention in the stream sediments is studied by multivariate data analysis methods.Results of data analysis show that stream sediments act as a complex oxidising-adsorption barrier and the heterogeneity of the geochemical barrier is controlled by redox gradients in the sediments, which can be sufficiently characterised by the distribution of Fe fractions. Data analysis suggests that adsorption and co-precipitation with Fe oxy-hydroxide are major processes beside the adsorption on organic matter. Mn is probably specifically adsorbed on Fe oxy-hydroxides, and beside Zn, it is least retained in the sediment. Pb, Cu and Ni are found in considerable quantity in the reducible fraction and are suggested to occur occluded in Fe oxy-hydroxides. On the other hand, organic matter provides important adsorption sites for Cu and Pb and controls exchangeable metals, too. Based on enrichment factor calculation and correlation analysis in the pore water and the oxide-bound fractions Ni, Cu and Zn are thought to represent the effects of ore mining.

Kitwe is the largest city on the Zambian Copperbelt. Copper has been exploited around Kitwe for more than seventy years with severe environmental consequences. Tailings impoundments and a large metallurgical facility located near Kitwe are suspected of causing surface water and groundwater pollution. Several installations are located in sensitive headwaters. One such tailings impoundment is Dump 15 A, runoff from which flows into the Mwambashi River, where water is drained for agriculture and for domestic consumption in Kitwe. The Mwambashi is a tributary of the Kafue River on which more than 40% of the Zambian population depend for water. The quality of this water is therefore critical to the general health of the Zambian populace. Fatal poisoning of livestock has been reported along the banks of the Mwambashi River.To assess the impact on the water environment, a study of the spatial distribution of environmental aspects has been undertaken using a GIS. The results of the spatial data analysis are combined with geochemical modelling to determine the characteristics of surface waters and how these change over time and spaceData acquired by Landsat TM, land cover data derived from maps, water quality data and the results of water-quality modelling can be combined to present a comprehensive picture of water quality alteration due to mine installations and their impact on the Mwambashi and Kafue rivers. Difficulties associated with this approach include the absence of historical surface water data and the low density of sampling points in the area of interest.

Exploitation of pyrite ores and hydrothermal Sb-deposits in the Malé Karpaty Mts. culminated mostly at the break of 19th and 20th century. The host rocks of the mineralizations are black shales in the actinolitic schists and amphibolites. Streams, soils and the waters in the neighborhood of the abandoned deposits are contaminated by toxic metals, such as As, Sb, Zn, Zn, Al, and local acidification arises as well. Chemolithotrophic bacteria were identified in the mine-waters with pH 2.5 – 3. As solid secondary phases, gypsum and jarosite occure in weathered black shales and weakly crystallized young Fe ochreous precipitates mostly in streams and outflows of mine drainage. We expected the presence of ferrihydrite, schwertmannite, goethite and poorly crystalline ferric arsenate-sulphate precipitates (?) in ochres. According to the chemical composition, several types were recognized: depending on the primary mineralization As-, Si-, Al-, and SO₄-rich ochres can be present. Sb, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd are present in lower concentrations. Accumulation of Ti, P, Ca, Na, Na and K indicate the decomposition of the rock-forming minerals.

Phase-selective sequential extraction techniques have been used to identify the residence sites of metals in soils developed over a historical silver-mining site. The operationally defined phases selected for extraction have been assigned to the following five fractions: adsorbed, bound to carbonates, bound to Fe-Mn oxides, bound to organic matter and residual. The following reagents had been used: NH₄-aceate, Na-acetate, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, hydrogen peroxide + nitric acid, mixed acids (HCI-HNO₃-HF), respectively. The solutions were analysed by atomic absorption flame photometry (Pb and Cd) and inductively coupled plasma atomic absorption photometry (other analysed elements). Mineralogical analysis was performed to detect Zn-Pb-bearing phases and cerussite was the only phase detected. Other mineral phases detected by XRD in the soil samples were as follows: quartz, dolomite, micas, plagioclase, K-feldspar, goethite, hydrargillite, kaolinite, chlorite, and organic matter. Assuming that mobility and biological availability are related to the solubility of the geochemical forms of the metals and the latter decreases in the order of extraction, the apparent mobility and potential metal bio-availability for these highly contaminated soils is: Cd> Pb> Zn> Cu> Ni. The distribution of Pb, Zn and Mn in mineral phases is similar in samples with both high and baseline trace-metal values. Cu, Fe, and Ni exhibit different distribution patterns in the two types of samples.

This report summarises the discussions of the Working Group on Geoenvironmental Models that were held as part of the NATO Advance Study Institute on “Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security.” The Working Group was made up of experts representing 15 countries and whose expertise included the geosciences and environmental economics. The discussions focused on target audiences and uses for geoenvironmental models, the formats for presenting geoenvironmental models, and the roles of national institutes and surveys in producing geoenvironmental models. In, the Working Group made recommendations for future research topics that would advance the development of geoenvironmental models worldwide.

This report summarizes the discussions of the Working Group on a Spatial Data Laboratory Network that were held as part of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on “Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security.” The Working Group was made up of experts who represented 14 countries and had expertise in such fields as the geosciences, geoinformatics and natural resources. The discussions focused on the scope of spatial data acquisition, handling and analysis tools in the assessment and monitoring of the environmental impact of mining. After analyzing the needs of our target group, the working group suggested the set-up of a home page for facilitating the information exchange. A brief outline of the home page was also presented.

This report summarizes the discussions of the Working Group on Natural Resource Assessments and Resource Management that were held as part of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on “Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security.” The Working Group was made up of experts who represented 12 countries and had expertise in such fields as the geosciences and natural resources. The discussions focused on the scope of natural-resource assessments, the formats for presenting assessments, and the relation with geoenvironmental assessments. The Working Group stressed the importance of effective communication to the users of assessments and the responsibilities of the scientists who make assessments.

This report summarizes the discussions of the Working Group on Resource Policy and East-West Relationships that were held as part of the NATO Advance Study Institute on “Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security.” The Working Group was made up of experts representing 13 countries and whose expertise included the geosciences, natural resources, and economics. The discussions focused on developing a framework for resource policy, East-West relations, and proposals for future research projects. These included a proposal for developing a certification program for mines managed according to predetermined standards, and a second proposal addressing environmental hazards associated with uranium wastes. The Working Group stressed the importance of a commitment to sustainable development and the development of strategies to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of life today, while protecting those resources that will be needed in the future.

This report summarizes the discussions of the Working Group on Natural Aggregate Resources (The A Group) that were held as part of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on “Deposit and Geoenvironmental Models for Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security.” The working group formed spontaneously at the NATO ASI conference because many of the researchers there recognized that there are numerous international issues that relate to the identification, characterization, and development of aggregate resources; the reclamation of mined-out lands; and the environmental issues surrounding these resources. The working group was made up of 26 experts that represented 18 countries. Many of the representatives were experts in other fields and were not experts in the field of natural aggregate. However, all recognized that natural aggregate is an important resource for developing and developed countries, and shared the concern that those resources be developed in an environmentally and socially sensitive manner. The goal of the working group was to share ideas, experiences, knowledge and solutions of issues that can be used to help create a more efficient, environmentally friendly method of developing the world's most intensively produced mineral resource.