Developing Inclusivity from Within: Advancing Our Understanding of How Teachers’ Personality Characters Impact Ethnic Prejudice and Homophobic Attitudes

Prejudice can be understood as a negative attitude or predisposition to perceive, judge, or act unfavourably towards ethnic groups other than one's own, or to people perceived as different (Mazzara, 2005). Prejudices often involve arbitrarily generalizing and or oversimplifying views of others based on superficial, incorrect, and poorly articulated knowledge (Allport, 1954). Prejudices are not only those expressed directly, through hostile, visible, and explicit behaviours, but can also be manifested more subtly, through non-verbal, automatic, and even unconscious attitudes and actions. The later can be more difficult to grasp or recognise, but still lead to increased detachment and discomfort towards an individual or a specific group of people (Pruett & Chan, 2006).

Ethnic stereotypes and prejudices, whether subtly or overtly displayed, can cause tension, discrimination, or conflict, and so too can homophobic stereotypes. Intraindividual homonegativity refers the discriminatory stereotypes and prejudicial beliefs held by non-heterosexual people about LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender/transsexual) people (Petruccelli et al., 2015). These negative attitudes and belief systems towards LGBT, which can result in discriminatory regulations, acts of hate, and unjustified labels, are the result of generalisations, falsehoods, and lack of awareness.

The level of diversity and multiculturalism within the world today is currently expanding due to massive social change, population movements, and increased social media influence. There are more opportunities to move abroad and more prospectus to encounter new cultures, combined with increased importance around self-expression. We are surrounded by greater levels of diversity than ever before, yet prejudices such as anti-immigrant feelings and homophobic sentiments still exist. Understanding how social biases shape our social interactions with out-of-group members is crucial to build fair and inclusive communities. This research aims to better understand factors that impact the genesis of ethnic prejudice and homophobic attitudes among one highly impactful group in society, teachers, while also providing evidence to help develop prevention policies and best practices.

Studies exploring the etiological factors that shape our social biases and attitudes towards diversity are interested in a variety of demographic and social characteristics such as age, gender, education, religion, and political orientation (Baiocco et al., 2013; Jäckle & Wenzelburger, 2014; Pacilli et al., 2011; Parrott et al., 2002), and personality (Flynn, 2005; Duriez & Soenens, 2006; Ekehammar & Akrami, 2007; Sturmer et al., 2013; Hodson & Dhont, 2015; Crawford & Brandt, 2019). While these studies provide benefit around factors associated with prejudices, unique to this study, is the focus on teachers. Teachers pose a unique role, where their social biases and attitudes can impact how they choose to teach, grade, and interact with students. Negative attitudes held by teachers can pose huge obstacles for students and society, as their work is so delicate and crucial for the well-being of future generations. Therefore, it is relevant to highlight the etiological factors related to teacher prejudice in order to stimulate the attention and awareness of teachers, provide direction to help manage and overcome these negative attitudes (e.g., homophobia and racism), and to create more inclusive teaching practices (Bhana, 2012; D’Urso et al., 2017; Hwang & Evans, 2011; Msibi, 2012; Pérez-Testor et al., 2010).

The literature highlights how internal characteristics of teachers can improve the quality of teaching, spreading an empathetic atmosphere that frames inclusive educational actions (Hachfeld et al., 2015). Teachers with open-mindedness and multicultural beliefs reported higher motivational orientations, and, above all, more positive values (lower level of agreement with negative stereotypes related to cultural diversity), as well as greater declared willingness to adjust and revise their teaching strategies (Ibidem). Teachers’ beliefs free of racial bias have been negatively linked to a reported willingness to tailor teaching to culturally diverse students.

Transversally, one’s reported closure towards gay and lesbian people can amplify prejudice against them (Petruccelli et al., 2015). Similarly, Lingiardi and colleagues (2016) found that higher homonegative attitudes were dictated by poorer levels of contact experience with lesbian and gay (LG) populations. In studies that sought to highlight the impact of personality on the genesis of prejudice found that the personality factors of openness to experience, which includes curiosity, imagination, and a desire for new experiences, have been associated lower levels of prejudice and higher levels of tolerance (e.g., Flynn, 2005; Duriez and Soenens, 2006; Ekehammar & Akrami, 2007; Sturmer et al., 2013; Crawford & Brandt, 2019). These findings indicate that individuals higher in openness have been consistently linked with lower levels of prejudice.

In general, the literature suggests that homophobic prejudice is characterised by higher levels of right-wing authoritarianism, closure, and mental rigidity (Cramer et al., 2013; Lingiardi et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2012; Whitley et al., 2000). In the Italian context, which is the setting of the current study, prejudices sometimes convey the social actions of teachers, which to denial towards minority groups (D’Urso & Petruccelli, 2022). This may happen due to lack of contact with diverse groups and individuals, creating obstacles to inclusion that one might not even be aware of (Petruccelli et al., 2015). Using a sample of 731 Italian participants, Lingiardi and colleagues (2016) found that participants with higher levels of homonegativity were more emotionally unstable, more easily upset, and more likely to have a submission-dominance personality style, indicating that they were more conformity-oriented and more likely influenced by others’ views. More recently, Ng and colleagues (2021), conducted a scoping review and meta-analysis on 17 studies exploring the impact of the personality factor of openness to experience on prejudice and tolerance. The review found that the personality facets of values, feelings/emotionality, and fantasy/imagination strengthened one’s ability to understand the perspectives of others resist rigid attitudes, and stive for friendly intergroup relationships, therefore promoting tolerance and reducing prejudiced attitudes among these individuals. Corroborating this, Flicker and Sancier-Barbosa (2022) found that prejudicial attitudes were best predicted by personality facets that were characterised by higher levels of conformity.

In addition to personality characteristics, social anxiety has also been linked to ethnic prejudice and homophobic attitudes, as the fear of being in social situations may generate states of closure, fear of not fitting in, and aversion to diversity (Finchilescu, 2010). Social anxiety may, together with specific personality characteristics, be a risk factor for the aetiology of negative attitudes and prejudices. In this sense, social anxiety could accentuate the perception that diversity is something that should be avoided, consequently leading one to distance oneself in order to feel comfortable. For example, Bernat and colleagues (2001) found that people with higher levels of social anxiety traits reported high levels of homophobic prejudice. Cullen et al. (2002) highlighted how anxiety can generate negative feelings towards what people fail to understand.

It is evident that personality characteristics have an impact on one’s prejudice and homonegative attitudes as well as their tolerance for diversity, and moreover how one interacts with others different from them. Minimal research explores the role of teachers’ personality on prejudice, which could impact student achievement and acceptance in school. While there has been research looking at how teachers’ personality traits predict their performance (e.g., Kell, 2019), minimal research looks at how such traits impact their interactions with, views of, and acceptance of students. van den Bergh and colleagues (2010), touched on this, when they found that teacher prejudice impacted their expectations of students, which explained ethnic achievement gap variation between classrooms. These findings highlight the possible impact of teacher personality characteristics and prejudices, yet more research is needed if we want to better understand how to create a more inclusive education system.

The present study aims to explore the personal characteristics of teachers in relation to forms of two forms of prejudices, subtle, and blatant ethnic prejudice and homonegativity. In particular, the study is summarised in two research questions (RQs). In line with the literature (e.g., Ekehammar & Akrami, 2007), the first RQ is: which personality traits of teachers are most connected to ethnic prejudice and negative attitudes towards LB topics (controlling by age and gender)? The rationale of RQ1 is to try to define the personality profiles of teachers in order to better structure training to create more inclusive education systems. Given the strong association between social anxiety and homophobic prejudices (e.g., Folkierska-Żukowska et al., 2022), the second RQ is: Are personality traits and social anxiety connected to ethnic prejudice and negative attitudes towards LG topics (controlling by age and gender)? In line with the concept of vulnerability (Carson, 2011), this research question aims to verify whether personality and psychopathological-environmental characteristics can play a role, and how, in relation to the aetiology of ethnic prejudices and homophobic attitudes. The rationale of RQ2 is to further expand on our understanding of how personality characteristics — which are known to impact behaviour — together with social anxiety — that it leading to avoidance — could be a vulnerability factor for prejudice. Studying both characteristics of teachers can help to structure teacher training and continued professional development, policy to help create more inclusive education systems, and the monitoring of teachers’ well-being.

Multivariate analyses suggests that agreeableness (Λ = 0.94 with F = 11.05; p < 0.001), conscientiousness (Λ = 0.97 with F = 6.60; p < 0.001), extroversion (Λ = 0.98 with F = 4.05; p < 0.05), and age (Λ = 0.90 with F = 19.10; p < 0.001) have a statistically significant effect in Model 1. Specifically, univariate analyses highlighted that higher levels of conscientiousness combined with lower levels of agreeableness and extraversion were factors related to blatant prejudice, while increased age, higher levels of conscientiousness, and lover levels of agreeableness were factors related to subtle prejudice, as seen in the model summary in Table 2. Furthermore, increased age and lower levels of agreeableness were factors related to negative attitudes towards LG topics. Neuroticism, openness, and gender did not have any significant effects across all three forms of prejudice.

When social anxiety was inserted into Model 2, multivariate analysis suggest agreeableness (Λ = 0.94 with F = 11.41; p < 0.001), conscientiousness (Λ = 0.95 with F = 6.60; p < 0.001), extraversion (Λ = 0.99 with F = 3.05; p < 0.05), age (Λ = 0.88 with F = 20.42; p < 0.001), and social anxiety (Λ = 0.97 with F = 5.04; p < . 05) have a significant effect on the outcomes. Specifically, the univariate analysis highlights that, much like Model 1, significant effects can be seen from lower levels of agreeableness across all three forms of prejudice, and from higher levels of conscientiousness across both subtle and blatant prejudice, as seen in Table 2. However, higher levels of social anxiety only explained negative attitudes towards LG topics. Along with this, when social anxiety was included, the effect of increased age on subtle prejudice disappeared. As seen in Model 1, neuroticism, openness, and gender did not have any significant effects across all three forms of prejudice in Model 2.

The aim of this study was to explore how the personality characteristics of teachers may impact ethnic prejudices and negative attitudes towards LG topics. Furthermore, this study aimed to verify if a teachers’ social anxiety had an effect on negative prejudices and attitudes. The study, consequently, sought to explore teacher personality characteristics in order to provide direction on areas where inclusive school sentiments can be improved. Considering previous literature, which highlights that prejudices can hinder action (D'Urso & Petruccelli, 2022) and can create negative views around the benefits of diversity and inclusive strategies (Merlin-Knoblich & Chen, 2018; Jones et al., 2013), such research can be beneficial in helping to direct future interventions aimed at creating inclusive education systems. Based on the findings of this study, several personal characteristics of the teachers, such as age, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and levels of social anxiety, can therefore help us to understand their prejudices and attitudes. This is in accordance with Bandura’s social learning model (2002, 2006, 2018), which postulated that personality patterns can influence prejudices and attitudes, and as results can converge in didactic actions that are not inclusive. The study highlights how open-mindedness towards new experiences and low levels of neuroticism, contrary to expectations, did not reduce prejudice or homophobic attitudes. These findings indicate that the other personality traits were more predominant in the group of teachers.

Indeed, the results highlight how increased conscientiousness is connected to subtle and blatant ethnic prejudice. Those high in consciousness tend to appear more controlled, goal driven, and self-disciplines, while those low in this scale might be considered more messy and forgetful and may try to take on less duties. When applying these characteristics to the results, there are several possible explanations for why those higher in this personality trait might have greater levels of prejudice. First, teachers high in conscientiousness are those who take their job very seriously, yet when face with accepting those who are ethnically different from themselves, they may feel that their training has not prepared them to understand or know how to meet the various needs of an ethnically diverse group of students. Teachers have several roles already, and they may see trying to adapt lessons to meet numerous skills, languages, and cultural differences might go beyond their training, professional scope, and time. This also shed light onto why a conscientiousness might not have a significant impact on attitudes towards LG issues, as teachers may not feel that they need to adapt their lesson plans to meet these needs, or that they know how to do so, and therefor do not find it a challenge. In line with the big five model (Crawford & Brandt, 2019), teachers who are more oriented towards their own goals and their own internal emotional states may not have inclusive impulses and therefore maintain more prejudices. Second, teachers who have a greater sense of duty and are very focused on the task may not be open to considering the foreigner as a resource, and therefore may not experience positive emotions towards them. In other words, exacerbating extreme concentration on meeting strict teaching requirements becoming almost a filter for not considering or wanting to accept diversity and therefore might refuse contact with them. Consequently, it could represent an obstacle to the social inclusion of cultural diversities. A critical reflection on the role and task of teachers, as well as training on how to adapt lessons to meet a various cultural difference, may help in the creation of positive attitudes and emotions towards foreigners.

Furthermore, the results found that teachers who have little agreeableness are more prone to subtle and blatant ethnic prejudices as well as negative attitudes towards LG topics. Those who score high on the agreeableness scale are generally considered to be kind and generous, and will try to create compromise, while those scoring low on this scale tend to me more focused on themselves, might be more sceptical of others, and are less concerned about the wellbeing of others. The possible reasons as to why one who has high consciousness has increased prejudice, as discussed above, can shed light on possible reasons why one who scores low in agreeableness might also. First, teachers may feel that they are being forced to change their practices as new students enter, and they might feel that they do not have to tools to make such change, leading them to disagree with the change. Second, teachers might be thinking about the stability of their job, the pressure to cover a certain amount of material in specific time periods, and the importance of standardised exams, and therefore, they might not see the intrinsic benefit of adapting their lessons to others who “don’t fit the mould.” Third, they could not understand or visualise the needs of others unlike them, and therefore, they do not know how to show positive intimacy and emotions towards those unlike them. At the same time, deficiencies in this trait can define a person who is unable to understand the importance of LG topics for their teaching as well as feeling negative emotions towards gay and lesbian people (Fredrickson, 2013; Quoidbach et al., 2015). Social and cultural diversity needs to be accommodated in terms of emotional needs first and foremost, and it is important to provide teachers with the supports to understand how the meet such needs.

The results also suggested that low levels of extraversion were related to blatant ethnic prejudices. Those who score high in extroversion are more outgoing, social, and engaged with the world around them, while those scoring low on this scale are generally more introverted and may appear more quiet and less social. In this sense, teachers emotionally cold and less sociable can do not have any positive attitudes towards others, especially people who belong to minority groups. Considering that these introverted individuals were also low in agreeableness and high in conscientiousness, it could be that this combination of personality traits leads to more open forms of ethnic prejudices. It could also be these individuals are less concerned with the issues of others, or maybe even unaware of various conversations within the school regarding teaching practices or conversations around diversity and inclusion and are therefore acting out of a level of naivety or unawareness of the issue. These teachers are taken more by their own internal world and can therefore leave out salient aspects concerning the context and therefore include attitudes of hostility and aversion towards groups that consider themselves as out-groups. This can hinder an inclusive vision of society which could also affect one’s own teaching actions when intercultural curricula are proposed (Pace et al., 2022).

Our results also suggested that as the age of the participants increased, the levels of subtle prejudice and homophobic attitudes also increased. These findings are in line with previous research (e.g., Raabe & Beelmann, 2011), which highlights that teachers who have more deeply rooted subtle prejudice do not consider cultural diversity as something to be embraced or perceived as part of one’s group. From a more historical perspective, age can also lead to negative views of homosexuality, which could hinder the use of inclusion practices around sexual minorities.

When social anxiety was inserted into the model, the significant personality aspects obtained in the first model remain unchanged, even though explained variance increased. However, the age effect disappeared for subtle ethnic prejudice, and could act as a buffer. The effect of age did still exist on homophobic attitudes. While social anxiety did not have an effect on subtle and blatant prejudices, it did have an effect on homophobic attitudes of teachers. Therefore, increased age and decreased agreeableness combined with increased fear of experiencing social anxiety can arouse negative feelings or fear of negative judgment. This represents a risk factor towards openness towards alterity, characterised by a fear of experiencing positive emotions towards gay and lesbian people. In line with the literature (Adams et al., 2016), traits of social anxiety can lead teachers to stifle their anxieties by avoiding diversity, positioning themselves negatively towards gay and lesbian people. The fear of facing social situations leads to a closure towards what, being perceived as different, may scare. In this sense, social anxiety could increase the defences against diversity.

Although the study extends the literature, it should be considered in light of its limitations. First, the use of self- report questionnaires may increase the social desirability of teachers who may attempt to show themselves in a more positive and socially acceptable way. To address this issue, future studies could use structured interviews and implicit measures (e.g., Implicit Association Test and the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure) to reduce the social desirability bias. Building on the present findings, additional research is also needed that includes other potentially important individual and social variables (e.g., relationships with out-groups) that may be configured as predisposing and/or protective factors for the aetiology of prejudices, also considering the particularities of different national contexts.

Personological characteristics (personality and social anxiety) impact ones attitudes and acceptance towards ethnic groups and lesbian and gay populations, and consequently it is important that researchers, practitioners, and educational systems seek to explore where these prejudices exist and how to target them in order to promote inclusion of social and cultural minorities. The non-acceptance of diversity — which generates discrimination — can be the behavioural expression of tension towards the out-group, which generates an obstacle to an inclusive education. Indeed, training courses for teacher are necessary to raise awareness and to address socio-emotional resistance towards issues that might create fear around being “contaminated” by interacting with those from other groups (cf. Beelmann & Heinemann, 2014). Along with this, schools and educational systems need to recognise the stress related to increased diversity within the classroom and should seek to provide support and training for teachers so that they can alleviate any anxiety or insecurities the teacher might have in their own skill set. Critical reflection on prejudices and negative attitudes can be a starting point for deconstructing a limited worldview, as well as considering a new teaching that takes into account the needs not only of those who are perceived as different, but also of all students who they must come into contact with diversity and must know how to welcome it without hesitation. Teachers are the first bearers of inclusive messages, and therefore, they hold a critical role around ensuring that students are witnessing positive attitudes towards, and instead of seeing the world through differences, looking at it as a world that accepts and represents the identity of each person.