From Hurricanes to Epidemics

The major ocean-related threats to human health will likely be realized as a result of sea level rise, the influence of the ocean on climate and weather, declines in fisheries, and ocean contamination that enters the linked marine and human food chains. To the first order, these ocean changes are due to large-scale warming of the ocean and the related melting of glaciers and ice sheet, as well as the scale and spatial distribution of heavy metal and plastic pollution. Changes in ocean currents linked to global warming likely play a second-order, and still uncertain, role in shaping human health outcomes of these perturbations. Nevertheless, shifting ocean circulation influences the spatial patterns of sea level rise and weather patterns we experience and can set the pace of ecosystem stressors such as marine heat waves, deoxygenation, and acidification which can collectively threaten fisheries and other resources. Our goal is to review some of the ocean circulation changes that may have these human health consequences.

Petroleum products are deposited in the seas through a variety of both human-made and natural routes. In addition to production-related accidents, petroleum seeps occur in a place where natural liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons escape to the earth’s surface. Oil from different regions and petroleum-related products have different levels of toxicity.

This is determined by both their in-ground content and their refined properties. The toxicity of crude oil is related to various components and the degree of which these components exist. Levels of toxicity to humans are influenced by many factors such as route of exposure, duration of exposure, age at exposure, and coexisting medical factors. Little is known about the long-term effect of oiled spills on cleanup workers and coastal residents.

This chapter will summarize the multi-decade socioeconomic decline that Providence, New Bedford, and Bridgeport have experienced throughout the latter half of the twentieth century. These cities were chosen because, as the three largest cities in SNE, they formerly experienced the highest levels of prosperity in the region but are now facing some of the highest levels of poverty. With each city, we will consider how emerging holistic concepts of resilience are being applied to address this climate adaptation challenge. Located in the three states that define SNE—Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts—we will gain insights about emerging state resilience initiatives. The discussion that follows describes the socio-ecological foundation for these resilience initiatives and the prospects for this work going forward.

The term “blue mind” was coined by neuroscientists and marine researchers to identify a personality trait that experiences a full awareness of water and its influence on life. The term describes the somewhat meditative state people fall into when near water. These benefits may be in response to the over-connected and over-stimulated state that is modern life. Research into this area reveals a well-documented benefit in not only mental but physical health as well in being near or on water. Destruction of marine habitats may represent a threat to these benefits.

A key component of global ocean circulation, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), is believed to play an important role in abrupt climate changes, both in the past and potentially in the future. As a nonlinear system, the AMOC has multiple equilibrium states characterized by different AMOC strengths, and it has been hypothesized that past abrupt climate changes, including the warm Dansgaard-Oeschger and cold Heinrich events, were related to the transition between such states. The question arises whether an abrupt climate change caused by the AMOC shift could also occur in the future as a result of anthropogenic global warming. Answering this question is complicated by the fact that state-of-the-art coupled climate models typically simulate a mono-stable AMOC for modern climate conditions, which contradicts observationally based indicators suggesting that the AMOC may be bi-stable (i.e., having two stable equilibria). This stability bias is largely due to a common model bias in tropical precipitation—the double Intertropical Convergence Zone problem distorting the Atlantic freshwater budget. After correcting this bias, we find that the AMOC can rapidly weaken and then collapse in experiments with CO₂ doubling, which suggests that the risk of AMOC shutdown in the future should not be underestimated.

We have put unprecedented stress on the oceans. Temperatures are increasing due to climate change. Chemistries are changing due to the acidification of the water, and the nutrient load is increasing due to freshwater runoff from agricultural sources. Approximately 3 billion people or half of the world’s population live within 200 kilometers of a coastline. Being in such close proximity to our waters comes with the risk of the transmission of waterborne diseases and exposure to marine toxins. This includes bacteria, viruses, and exposure to harmful algal blooms.

The issues that affect the oceans are wide-ranging and difficult to address in the diplomatic and legal arena. In order to come to an understanding of the regulation of ocean issues, pollution commodification by oil industries, and aquaculture, all maritime laws must be considered. These laws in particular have consequential impacts on human health. There are several instruments for regulating all the aforementioned, from international conventions to norms of the industries, to state regulations, private compensation funds, and bilateral/multilateral agreements. However, what is indisputable is that there is much yet to be developed when it comes to international maritime law as time goes on and global needs continue to shift.

Just as we being to understand the pathophysiology behind one disease, and its patterns, another disease emerges. This correlates with a continuously changing environment. Increases in population further promote new and resistant pathogens. This necessitates the need to continue to develop new and more advanced pharmaceuticals. The challenge has accelerated in recent years as pathogens have become resistant to current antibiotics and the quest to reduce the burden of cancer has accelerated.

Tropical cyclones are called “hurricanes” in the North Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans, “typhoons” in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, or simply “cyclones” in the Indian Ocean and other ocean basins. Tropical cyclones are one of the most destructive weather systems on earth posing significant social and economic threats to those living in tropical cyclone-prone areas. Scientific advances in observations and understanding the behavior of tropical cyclones have dramatically improved our ability to forecast these dangerous storms. The current and future impacts of global warming on tropical cyclones have great implications for society, especially in coastal regions affected by these extreme storms. Recent studies show that tropical cyclones will intensify more rapidly in the future. Projected sea level rise due to global warming will cause higher coastal inundation levels during storm surges. All these factors will likely exacerbate tropical cyclone hazards for coastal populations in the future.

The plastic crisis affects the entire world, regardless of where the plastic is made or where it enters the oceans. This chapter details how plastics become microplastics and the effects microplastics have on the marine life, humans, and environment. Issues of plastic pollution around the globe are commonly known but the categorization of plastics by size is new. Macro-, micro-, and nanoplastics each pose unique risks to human health. Each are deposited and created in the oceans by various methods. No single solution will mediate the effects of all three categories of plastics.

To solve humanity’s planetary crises, humans need to meld a systems view of life with human agency. While scientists work diligently to find rational answers that will help to fix the earth’s ecosystem, it was the COVID-19 pandemic that has enlightened some inherent human attributes that will motivate change. This chapter defines and describes the system view of life. It describes inherent human traits that blossomed into awareness during the COVID-19 pandemic. It outlines observations of human behavior that could assist in the future struggle to combat climate change and improve both human health and the health of the earth’s oceans.

Over the past two decades, the importance of oceans for human health has been increasingly recognized. Research has demonstrated that both physical and mental well-being are integrally linked to both inland and offshore waters. As this text demonstrates, differing areas of research such as climate change, ocean currents, hurricanes, fish stocks, and algal blooms are all interconnected. The development of appropriate governmental policy, across all countries, will also require formulating the data from these various fields into a relatable message to both the public and policymakers. There is a consensus that the communication efforts going forward to achieve sustainable oceans should not only contain alarm signals but success stories as well. In the United States, there has been a call for a Blue New Deal to compliment the Green New Deal. Similar proposals have been suggested and enacted in other countries.