2. Heterotopia and the Utopian Project

Segal, Howard P., Utopias: A Brief History from Ancient Writings to Virtual Communities, First Edition, Chap. 3, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2012, 47.

Claeys, Gregory, Sargent, Lyman Tower, The Utopia Reader, Introduction, eds. Gregory Claeys, Lyman Tower Sargent. NYU Press, 1999, 6.

Segal, Howard P., Utopias: A Brief History…, 13; also Claeys, G., Sargent, L. T., The Utopia Reader…, 6.

As seen in Hesiod, Works and Days—700 B.C., in De Civitate Dei contra paganos by Augustin de Hipona—fifth century A.D.., where the ideal is the promised afterlife, in Ovid’s Metamorphoses—8 d.Hr.

Claeys, Gregory, Sargent, Lyman Tower, The Utopia Reader, Introduction, Gregory Claeys, Lyman Tower Sargent. NYU Press, 1999, 2.

For Nichifor Crainic it is explained by the orthodox argument, and for Eliade, by the philosophical argument.

Ruști, Doina, Dictionar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade, ed. Dana Poenaru, CORESI Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998, 36.

Claeys, Sargent, The Utopia Reader, 2–3.

Claeys, Sargent, The Utopia Reader, 3.

“Libellus vere aureus nec minus salutaris quam festivius de optimo reip[ublicae] statu, deq[ue] nova Insula Vtopia”, published in Louvain.

Miles, Urban…, 11.

Kruft, Hanno-Walter, History of Architectural Theory, Princeton Architectural Press, 1994, 229.

Amaurot—“castle in the air”; Anydrus, main river—“no water” Miles, Urban Utopias…, 13.

“There is no private ownership of land, and the people are constantly moving from the town to farmsteads and vice versa; no private life is permitted, and town dwellings are exchanged by lot every ten years. Amaurotum itself is described as lying on a gentle slope, with an almost square layout…” Kruft, History of…, 229.

Apud. Kruft, History of…, 229.

Idem.

The outer enclosure has an exclusively defensive role; thus the first enclosure illustrates mathematical figures and the Earth; the second one, minerals, metals and geographic areas, liquids and potions, and their properties; the third one, flora and fish; the fourth one, birds and creeping animals, reptiles and insects; the fifth one, walking terrestrial animals on both sides; the sixth one, crafts, mechanical arts and related tools, and figures such as Moses, Osiris, Jupiter, Mercury, Lycurgus, Pompilius, Pythagoras, Zamolxis, Solon, Charondas, Phoroneus, inventors, scientists, philosophers, etc.

All housing related activities are carried out in common spaces (bedrooms, canteens, public baths). The ground floor is dominantly occupied by residential areas and workshops, the basement by production-related functions (factories, workshops, warehouses); the first floor is designed for the arts—painting, sculpture, music; the second floor—for the speculative arts: rhetoric, philosophy, and other related disciplines.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World, Belknap Press; New edition (September 15, 1982), 149.

In The Law of Freedom in a Platform (1652); Gerrard Winstanley—English Protestant religious reformer, founder of a socialist-agrarian sect—knows as the “Diggers” (to dig). The principle argued and applied by Winstanley was the abolition of property and payments in money, following the biblical example of equality between individual and the common good; the Diggers community founded by Winstanley was one of the first colonies of this nature.

For example, for Winstanley (The Law of Freedom in a Platform) there is a segregation of the spaces for production/commerce according to the specifics of the main material: “In every town and city shall be appointed store-houses for flax, wool, leather, cloth and for all such commodities as come from beyond seas, and these shall be called general store-houses. […]Every particular house and shop in a town or city shall be a particular store-house or shop, as now they be; and these shops shall either be furnished by the particular labour of that family according to the trade that family is of […]”; in the New Atlantis, Bacon’s description of Salomon’s House, an institution-like entity, is more architecturally detailed, comprising both natural elements and anthropic structures—“artificial wells and fountains, made in imitation of the natural sources and baths”, “great and spacious houses where we imitate and demonstrate meteors”, “parks and enclosures of all sorts of beasts and birds”, towers used “according to their several heights, and situations, for insolation, refrigeration, conservation; and for the view of divers meteors […]. And upon them, in some places, are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes, and instruct what to observe”, “health rooms”, curative baths, orchards and gardens, parks, houses dedicated to the sciences of vision, hearing, taste and smell, etc., illustrating a cosmic-like structure, complete and autonomous. Winstanley, G., The works of Gerrard Winstanley with an appendix of documents relating to the digger movement, ed. George H. Sabine, New York, Russell & Russell Inc., 1965, e-book format; Bacon, F., The New Atlantis, Project Gutenberg, release #2434, http://​www.​gutenberg.​org/​ebooks/​2434.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 149.

Foucault, M., of Other Spaces, Apud. Dehaene, M., de Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City, Routledge, 2008, 17.

Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, apud. Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia…, 17.

Rowe, C., Koetter, F., Collage city, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1978, 13.

Mannheim, Karl, Ideologie und Utopie, Bonn, 1929, apud. Arbore, Grigore, Cetatea ideală în viziunea Renașterii, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978, 61–2.

Where ideology is defined as the ideational paradigm that structures the perception of the individual and the community of their own environment. More in Mannheim, K., Ideologie und Utopie, Bonn, 1929.

Mannheim, Karl, Ideologie und Utopie, Bonn, 1929, apud. Arbore, Grigore, Cetatea ideală în viziunea Renașterii, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978, 62.

Arbore, Cetatea Ideală, 64.

Coleman, N., Utopias…, 23.

Coleman, N., Utopias…, 46.

Coleman, Nathaniel, Utopias and Architecture, Routledge, 2007, 6.

Coleman, Nathaniel, Utopias and Architecture, Routledge, 2007, 48.

Coleman, N., Utopias…, 10.

Arbore, Cetatea ideală, 38.

Idem.

Coleman, Utopias…, 11.

Idem.

Assunto, Rosario, Scrieri despre artă, Vol 3: Orașul lui Amfion și orașul lui Prometeu. Idei și poetici despre oraș, translated by Ștefan Nicolae, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 1988, 33.

Antohi, Sorin, Civitas Imaginalis: istorie și utopie în cultura română, ed.a 2-a, rev., Polirom, Iași, 1999, 16.

Idem.

Idem.

Lilley cites a series o mediaeval towns, built in the 17th century—Berne, Kenzingen, Breisach-am-Rheim, with rectangular planimetrics, defined by “harmonic proportions” (3:5, 1:2, 1:√2)—especially employed for the plotting and the street grid; the author notes the presence of the 2:1 ratio in several regions and successive stages—in the bastides of Monpazier, Monflanquin, Miramont de Guyenne, in France, or in the fourteenth-century Florentine cities and projects. Lilley, Keith D., City and Cosmos: The Medieval World in Urban Form, Reaktion Books, 2009, 67.

As it can be easily deduced from the illustrations of Medieval manuscripts, which repeat the structures of divine nature—centralities and hierarchies—to miniature scale, almost refused to the naked eye and thus demonstrating the existence of supreme order.

Assunto, Orașul…, 37.

Idem.

Such an example is the cathedral (792, d.Hr.) of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany) The town had been chosen by Charlemagne as the capital of the Carolingian Empire; the encodings are multiple, of both arithmetic and geometrical nature: the number 8, representation of perfection, is constantly repeated—the octagonal dome, the hexadecagon-shaped plan of the ambulatory, the eight arches and pillars supporting the dome, etc.; the representations support this encoding: the ornamental mosaics depict the archetypal model, the civitate dei.

According to Assunto, it becomes a “purely representative edifice” compared to the others, whose representativeness remains tied to their functionality; the façade of the Florentine church, cited by Assunto, marks this detachment from functionality—“finding rest in contemplation”. The discourse stored in the expression of the edifice’s façade makes it transcend architecture, its materiality; the church becomes absolute contemplation, escape from everyday life and materiality.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World, Belknap Press; New edition (September 15, 1982), 153; Arbore, G., Cetatea Ideală, Curente și sinteze/Currents and Synthesis Series, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978, 32.

The ‘condition’ of ‘Acute francophilia’: every man has two homelands, France and his own, and people who “cannot conceive a world without France, France without Paris, Paris without the Louvre and the Louvre without the Mona Lisa” Gh. Eminescu, Memorii/Memoires, București, Floare albastră Publishing House, 1995, 38, apud. Stănescu, Dorin, Un neam și două istorii: Românii din Regat se bat cu flori, cei din Ardeal, Bucovina şi Basarabia luptă în tranșee [One nation and two histories: The Romanians in the Old Kingdom fight with flowers, those in Transilvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia fight in the trenches], in HISTORIA, No. 149, June 2014, 152.

And even in parallel with it, as Manuel notes, due to the dates when Utopia was published in the Italian space.

Idem.

The Vitruvian model is picked up at a structural level—De Re Aedificatoria being composed, like Vitruvius’ treatise, of ten distinct volumes, and also at a thematic level–Alberti discussing the theoretical and practical issues according to the three essential values of architecture, utilitas, venustas and firmitas.

The ten books have general themes, as follows: 1. location, 2. materials, 3. construction, 4. public works, 5. private works (noble or common residences) and functions, 6. about ornaments, 7. about ornaments in worship edifices, 8. about ornaments in public and secular buildings, 9. about ornaments in private buildings, 10. restoration of buildings.

A. discusses issues and situations of urban space—of the individual (public and private) construction, of the public space, of the functions (public and private), but also their organization and functioning—from the micro-level (constructive systems), meso (of the individual building) and macro (of the fortress/ city), of the latter in particular.

Momus—1450; I Libri della famiglia—publ.1843.

Leach, Andrew, Imitating Critique or the Problematic Legacy of the Venice School, în The Missed Encounter of Radical Philosophy with Architecture, ed. Nadir Lahiji, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014, 104, and http://​www.​psupress.​org/​books/​samplechapters/​978-0-271-04855-0sc.​html, accessed June 2014.

Pearson, Casper, Humanism and the Urban World. Leon Battista Alberti and the Renaissance City, Penn State University Press, 2011, http://​www.​psupress.​org/​books/​titles/​978-0-271-04855-0.​html, accessed in June 2014.

Pearson, http://​www.​psupress.​org/​books/​titles/​978-0-271-04855-0.​html, accessed in June 2014.

Idem.

Idem.

India appears as the synonym for the unknown and remote other, the Far East (and not in the contemporary sense), agglutinating a larger area: China (India Interior or Ulterior) and Africa (India Tertia, India Aegypti or I. Aethiopia)—as well as incorrectly delineated, where Africa and India are featured as a single continent, a “misconception that was eventually corrected towards in late 15th century”. Hub, Berthold, Filarete and the East: The Renaissance of a Prisca Architectura Source, 18–37, în Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 70, no. 1, Martie 2011, 24, accesat Iulie 2014.

Hub, B., Filarete and the East…, 24.

Kostof, Spiro, The City Shaped, Thames & Hudson, Limited, 1999, 184.

For example, Filarete proposes standardized dwellings for different social classes, each with a different expression—using Doric order for the noble class, the Corinthian for merchant class and the Ionic for the artisan class, each with its specific dimensions and structuring. Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 168–9.

De Civitate Dei contra paganos, Augustin de Hipona, sec. 5 d.Hr. (aprox. 427 d.Hr); The city of God—governed by the spirit and love of God—is placed in antithesis with the City of Man, or the Earthly City—governed by self-love, sin, pleasure and enchantment with one’s own power. The earthly city is described as having a circular layout, divided by radially placed circulations and circular belts, each defining a subdivision dedicated to a virtue and, respectively, to a vice.

See also Kostof, S., The City…; Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 163.

To such extent that, as Manuel points out, in support of the utilitarian argument, Filarete proposes the abolishing of the death penalty “as a waste of productive capacity”. Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 170.

Several centuries later, both of these characteristics (the centrality and the zoning) will be invoked by modernism in the name of the efficiency of the city-organism and harbouring a similar segregation.

Kostof recalls some of the initiatives that took over the radial structure of Sforzinda (with diluted or eliminated socio-political charge): the mining town with rectangular central layout, Freudenstadt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany—1599 (the palace that would occupy the centre of the plan would no longer be built); the city with hexagonal central layout, Grammichele, Sicilia, Italia—1693 (the only power present in the centre of the plan is the church; radial streets delineate five individual neighbourhoods, and a segment dedicated to the prince). Other similar plans appear in the Italian space—Terra del Sole, Province of Forlì-Cesena, (1564), a central-rectangular layout and an orthogonal street grid; Avola—Sicily (1693)—hexagonal central layout and rectangular square; Palmanova, Udine, (1593)—stellar layout and hexagonal central square; Sabbionetta, Mantua, (1554)—irregular stellar layout, orthogonal grid; San Lorenzo Nuovo, Viterbo (1772), octagonal square and orthogonal grid.

Described in Trattato di Architettura, 1461–64—the first architectural treatise written in Italian (vulgar).

Filarete’s plan will not be observed à la lettre, thus losing the very particular divine ordering expressed in built form: the initially oblong-rectangular plan of the central courtyard becomes quadrate, and the nucleus, the Annunciation Church, mark of the epicentre and symmetry point for the entire building, will not be built; in addition, the main building of the hospital undergoes a series of stylistic adaptations of the facades, the construction details and its overall volume (its inner and corner towers, distribution of its avant-corps, etc.).

Planned city, Palmanova was founded on October 7th, 1593, according to the plans of architect Scamozzi.

“un type d’architecture collective inspirée des habitats communautaires protestants, faisant cohabiter plusieurs propriétaires dans une même maison desservie par une entrée commune”, d’Orgeix, Émilie, Docomomo International, Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine, 2006, a review of Jacques Perret’s treatise, Des fortifications et artifices. Architecture et perspective, Paris, 1601, consultată pe http://​architectura.​cesr.​univ-tours.​fr/​traite/​Notice/​ENSBA_​LES1698.​asp?​param=​en.

“Ce mélange des genres, architecture militaire et religieuse, est sans précédent dans l’histoire des traités de fortifications”, Idem.

Lorini is involved as well, as military engineer in the service of the ‘Serenissima’ Republic of Venice, in the building of Palmanova’s fortifications. To put forward his ideas he also turns to the formula of the architecture treatise, with its already established military-utilitarian flavouring: Delle fortificazioni, libri cinque, Veneția (1597) and Due pareri sulle fortificazioni di Udine e Palma nel secolo XVI, printed by S. Beretta-Manin—G. L. Manin, Udine (1868). Doti, Gerardo, LORINI, Buonaiuto, in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani—Volume 66 (2007), http://​www.​treccani.​it/​enciclopedia/​buonaiuto-lorini_​%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/​, accessed in July 2014.

Architect, theoretician and engineer, born in Siena, Italy (1439—1501). James Stevens Curl, Giorgio di Martini, Francesco di, A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 2000, Encyclopedia.​com, accessed July, 2014.

Kostof, Spiro, The City…, 189.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 157.

The treatise is “divided into sections on general principles, the essential features of a commodious city constructed for a social animal, the ornaments of cities and fortresses, the temple to God, the fortifications for dominion, and the technology necessary for construction”. Manuel, Manuel, Utopian…, 175.

Di Giorgio proposes “four types of houses for the four lower orders of the city’s inhabitants, peasants (villani), artisans (arte}ici), intellectuals (studenti), and merchants (mercanti), as well as residences for the nobili”, Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 169.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 165.

Kruft, Hanno-Walter, History of Architectural Theory, 96.

Kruft, Hanno-Walter, History of Architectural Theory, 100.

Manuel, E. Frank and Manuel, Fritzie P. read Da Vinci’s scheme as a binary one (two-level city); however when observing more closer the description and the plans of this ideal city, the tripartite structure becomes more apparent, as the traffic network (both water and soil) additionally divides the lower ‘hidden’ levels.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 170.

Christianopolis (Reipublicae christianopolitanae descriptio) or Christian reformist utopia by Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654), published in 1619. Campanella and Bacon’s influence is evident in this society’s hierarchical system of organization. Geographically, architecturally and urbanistically, the descriptions also illustrate a well-known image: Capharsalama, a (triangular) isolated island, accessible through the voyage of the ship (Phantasia) and the accident, the conditioned access, the symmetrical and heavily fortified square city, zoned according to functional hierarchies, standardization of urban space and its common use. If for Moore or Campanella the city is a reflection of society but also a tool for its moral moulding, for Andreae the city contributes to revelation and spiritual conversion of the individual.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 210.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 210.

Ruyer, Raymond, L’utopie et les utopies, Paris, 1950, 159, apud., Arbore, Cetatea…, 66. Original quote: “Les utopistes de la Renaissance continuent à fabriquer des systèmes communistes au moment même où commence l’ère du capitalisme et de la libre entreprise. Ils rêvent d’une monarchie universelle au moment où les nationalismes s’affirment. Ils s’attachent à un idéal ascétique alors que florissent des cultures brillantes et luxueuses.”

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 166.

Ioan, Augustin, Repede ochire asupra culturii urbane ideale [Quick overview of the ideal urban culture], in Arhitectura care nu există. Imaginar, virtual, utopie, [The Architecture that does not exist. Imaginary, virtual utopia] coord. Augustin Ioan, Paideia Publishing House, Spații imaginate Collection, Bucharest, 1999.

The city’s plan is an irregular pentagon, with a square central market, from which ten streets radiate asymmetrically; two interrupted circular streets suggest the organization of the urban fabric in two rings around the central market. Philippeville appears represented with two versions of fortifications (the first one, with polygonal bastions and enclosure wall and, respectively, with bastions, wall, rampart and ravelins) both disassembled with the forced neutrality and the resulting demilitarization of Belgium (1831), in 1853–6, www.​tourismephilippe​ville.​be/​patrimoine/​presentation-des-villages-de-lentite-de-philippeville, accessed in June 2014.

The city’s plan is an octagonal one with a central market, initially free, and later in the Baroque period occupied by the City Hall building, from where eight streets extend perpendicularly on two built rings; the plan receives, in the nineteenth century, three Vauban fortification rings (two curtain walls with polygonal bastions, and one rampart).

Arras (1668–72), Besançon (1668–83), Blaye (1686–89) Cussac-Fort-Medoc (1690–1700), Briançon (1692–1700–1734); orașele nou create Longwy (1679), Mont-Dauphin (1692), Neuf-Brisach (1698–1703); Saint-Martin-de-Re (1681–5), Villefranche-de-Conflent (1669)—all variations of the well-known star planimetry, UNESCO-listed objectives in 2008, and only a few of the 330 fortified citadels and cities made directly by Vauban; along with numerous other examples of the Vauban model, we mention some of the Romanian space: Arad Fortress, Alba Iulia fortress, Timişoara fortress, the second fortification of the Făgăraş Fortress.

The town-fort is built in1780–90 at the orders of Austrian Emperor Joseph II the second. Although in late eighteenth-century Terezin was one of the most modern and well-equipped fortifications in Europe, it will quickly lose its status (1882) due to the political context and the technological advance. http://​www.​ghetto-theresienstadt.​info/​terezingeschicht​e.​htm și http://​www.​pamatnik-terezin.​cz, accessed in June 2014.

http://​www.​ghetto-theresienstadt.​info/​terezingeschicht​e.​htm și http://​www.​pamatnik-terezin.​cz, accessed in June 2014.

Idem.

Inside the main fortification, the 219 houses and 11 barracks were used strictly for the administration and the housing of the stationed troops; alongside these, the buildings with other functions were: warehouses, small workshops, shops, restaurants, a covered racetrack, a bakery and a army brewery, as well as the garrison church, and underneath all these about 25 km of underground passages.

http://​www.​ghetto-theresienstadt.​info/​terezinghetto.​htm#kommission, accessed in June 2014.

Idem.

The latter in particular is discussed by Eliade in relation to the architecture and act of the construction/building: “any new human settlement is, in a sense, a re-construction of the world. In order to be durable, in order to be real, the new dwelling or the new city must be designed, supported by the construction ritual, in the [very] Centre of the Universe. According to numerous traditions, the creation of the world began in a centre and, for this reason, the construction of the city must also take place in the circumference of a centre”, Eliade, Mircea, Tratat de istorie a religiilor, Mircea Eliade, Humanitas, 2006, 342.

Blaga, L., Trilogia Culturii, Minerva Publishing House, Bucharest, 1985, 263, apud. Fabini, H., Universul…, 82.

The Saxon fortified citadel (or Cetatea bisericească/church fortress) is usually defined through the presence of both a fortified church and a fortified enclosure, the latter serving the purpose of shelter the villagers and some of their goods for a given period of time. The rural fortified citadel (cetate ţărănească/rural citadel) is defined by its simple or complex enceinte, doubled by an interior set of housing/storage rooms, at times lacking a centrally located fortified church. The classification is additionally complicated by the third group—the refuge enceintes, or citadels with more rudimentary fortifications and no church (Fabini, op. cit., 253). The distinction between the first two is usually considered to be their location—within the fabric of the settlement, respectively, outside or adjoining it; also, a commonly used means of distinction between the rural fortified citadel and the refuge enceinte is their patronage, as the latter is financed, built and used by multiple settlements. However, the rural fortified citadels (cetati taranesti) are not all of Saxon origin, some belonging to the existing local Romanian communities.

Fabini identifies and exemplifies four typologies of spaces: (a) the village traversed by a main street, at the end of which the church is positioned (Feldioara, Cisnădie), (b) the village traversed by a main street in the centre of which there is a pocket-like space or square where the church is located (Șura Mare, Șura Mică, Saschiz, Daia, Valchid, Băgaciu), c) the church located on the main street (corner plot) where this is traversed by a secondary street (Axente Sever, Valea Viilor, Moșna, Șaroș pe Târnave, Seleuș, Codlea, also Vulcan), and its variant, d) the church located in the centre, in a lenticular island delineated by two streets (Nocrich, Boian, Brădeni, Drăușeni, Homorod, Stejărișu); Fabini, H., Universul…, 81…84.

Considering that 62% of the Saxon churches are located on flat land, 16% in an elevated location, 6% on a promontory alongside the built-up tissue of the village, and 16% on a slope. Data according to the Fabini’s brief on Saxon churches in Transylvania. Fabini, Universul…, 84.

This ordering principle defined the perfect unity, a perfect balance between the constituent parts or, in other words, the interrelation between the macro-layers (individuals, buildings, society, nature and universe) and between the micro-layers, in a complete and harmonious synchronization of all constituent parts along any direction considered.

Foucault, Of Other…, op.cit., 21.

Foucault, Of Other,…, op.cit., 22.

The “defence spaces and walls must be guarded by strong, well-equipped men with good rifles (…) all of the other guards in the watch must have ready a large axe”; the non-combatant population is “forbidden to shout, cry, walk the streets consoling one another, all of them must remain at home, praying to God and asking for His help. They must have ready water containers [,] in homes and stables, as well as heat blankets in the case of fires”, Verteidigungsanstalten, 1491, apud. Fabini, Universul…, 53. [The original German text appears here in a translation after Fabini’s Romanian translation].

Pavel, Teodor, (contributor, Babes-Bolyai University) Transylvanian Saxons, published online for the Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions, https://​www.​ohio.​edu/​chastain/​rz/​transax.​htm, accessed June 2014.

Anghel, Gheorghe, Cetăți medievale din Transilvania [Medieval Fortifications of Transylvania], Meridiane, Bucharest, 1972 and Fabini, H., Universul cetăților bisericești din Transilvania, MONUMENTA, Sibiu, 2009.

Rusu, A. A., Cetatea Oradea până în secolul al XVI-lea [The Oradea Citadel until the sixteenth century], www.​medievistica.​ro, accessed in June 2014; Rusu also mentions the reorganization process of the fortifications: “the rebuilding of the enclosures [13th century] was done considering the episcopal cathedral as the central element”, which becomes the focal point.

The fortification is built between 1692 and 1695 according to the plans of Baron Ernst von Borgsdorf; the inner buildings belong to a subsequent phase, built between 1754–1755 and 1775–1777.

The citadels of Palmanova, Italy, Neuf-Brisach, France, or Terezín, Czech Republic.

A notorious example for this situation are the Arras and Besançon fortifications, France.

The official website of the citadel, www.​bourtange.​nl, accessed in June 2014.

Frank E. Manuel, Fritzie P., Utopian Thought in the Western World, Belknap Press; New edition (September 15, 1982) 426–7.

On the one hand, the experiment can be considered a reprehensible exploitation example—as the Paraguayan Indians were “living in bondage to Jesuit overlords who luxuriated at their expense and filled the coffers of the order with the surplus from their labor” and on the other hand a praiseworthy example of “abolishing barbarism and establishing a regime of law, order, communal living, and happiness.” The reality, as captured in Bougainville’s travel accounts, and as mentioned by Foucault (Of Other Spaces…), is nonetheless a very different one: “The Indians had been so tyrannized and terrified by the Jesuit Fathers that for minor infractions of the rules adults allowed themselves to be whipped like schoolboys. The hours of work and rest were so meticulously regulated by the clock that their whole existence was rendered monotonous. They were so overwhelmed with tedium that they died without regret, never having lived.” The Paraguayan Indians’ community was entirely controlled in all aspects its life, under the ordering and the constant supervision of the Jesuits. Manuel, Frank E., Manuel, Fritzie P., Utopian Thought in the Western World, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, New edition (September 15, 1982), 426–9.

Such a repurposing process was a common occurrence in the Romanian space during the communist regime; the motivations are multiple: the large existing reserve of built stock, made readily available through the process of nationalization and the dissolution of the big landowners class; the ideologic connotations (taking from the rich/noble class and given to the people). However, an indisputable motive is the utilitarian consideration: these former noble residences were almost always secluded and enclosed in large green estates, and/or clearly delineated within their context. This was the case for numerous such estates: in Alba: Thorotzkay-Rudnyánszky Manor (Colţeşti), initially a rest house, then sanatorium for disabled children; Arad—Konopi Castle (Odvoş), Teleki Castle (Căpâlnaș, Birchiș), to this day a psychiatric hospital; Cernovici Castle (Macea) repurposed as orphanage, visually impaired sanatory, and juvenile re-education centre; Bulci-Mocioni Castle (Bata), neuropsychiatric hospital, then TB sanatorium; Brașov: Făgăraş Citadel, former prison; Cluj: Corneni-Schilling Manor, former boardingschool, Banffy Castle (Răscruci), former special needs boardingschool; the Gilău castle, boardingschool for disabled children, Gherla Citadel, prison since the eighteenth century; in Hunedoara: Nopcsa Manor (Zam), psychiatric hospital; the Nălaț castle (Nălaț), asylum for mentally disabled children; Miercurea Ciuc: Miko Castle, exclusively repurposed as military space: barracks, boys’ boardingschool, again barracks; Sibiu: Apafi Castle (Dumbrăveni), former prison; in Timiș—Banloc Castle, former retirement home and orphanage; Mureș: Teleki Castle (Glodeni), disabled people asylum, Teleki Castle (Gornești), former orphanage; Brâncovenești-Kendi-Kemeny Castle (Brâncovenești), juvenile correctional facility, then disabled children’s asylum, and currently repurposed as a neuropsychological recovery and rehabilitation centre; Banffy Castle (Gheja), psychiatric ward. These are some of the more prominent examples from the Romanian space. Another utilitarian repurposing of these former residencies was their reassignment as Agricultural Production Cooperatives (CAPs) centres; the motives were similar: their location and size, their spatial structuring and their relative isolation by means of enclosures and their large unbuilt adjacent estates.

The second principle of heterotopia proposed by Foucault: “a society can make a heterotopia that exists, and has never ceased to exist, function in a very different way; for each heterotopia has a precise and determined function within a society and the same heterotopia can […] have one function or another.” Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, in Dehaene M. and De Cauter L., Heterotopia and the city…, 18.

http://​www.​sarlota.​de/​index_​e.​htm, Accessed in June 2014.

The oldest identified representation: Franz Häscher: Plan von dem Dorff Scharlodenburg, 1775, Map Collection—Königliche kameralische Mappierungs Direction—maps S1, No 102/1, consulted on http://​www.​sarlota.​de/​index_​e.​htm, June 2014.

Typical for most colonist settlements, this group is also highly diverse: 67 colonists from the eastern region of Trier, 12 from Lothringen, 10 from Baden-Württemberg, 8 from Hungary, 7 from Rheinland and Rheinpfalz, 6 from Austria, 3 from Bavaria and other regions. Idem.

Franz Häscher-Koller, engineer, author, Map of Charlottenburg, 1784, National Archives of Hungary: Map Collection—Direction Königliche kameralische Mappierungs, Map S1, No. 102, consulted on http://​www.​sarlota.​de/​index_​e.​htm, June 2014.

Kasmir Johann Haag (Johann Casimir Hague), Anton Fr. v. Baselli, engineer, author, Map of Charlottenburg, 1821, National Archives of Hungary: Map Collection—Direction Königliche kameralische Mappierungs, Harta S1, No. 102/3, consulted on http://​www.​sarlota.​de/​index_​e.​htm, June 2014.

Tangentially to the outline of the ensemble, a large-scale planted production terrain (the Şarlota Forest) was initially designed, its road grid continuing the layout of the settlement—illustrating the coherent and unitary intent of the colonial demarche; although this structuring is one of the first to disappear, thus suggesting an alternative pattern of use than initially designed, the function of these lands will be preserved.

Strigarea peste sat, ad litteram translated as calling over the village, is a Romanian regional traditional practice used as a ‘softer’ control mechanism: an individual is charged with ‘broadcasting’—by means of calling/shouting specifically designed rhymes—the local events, news or misdeeds of the community’s members. Much like the Charlottenburg’s built structure, this is also a self-regulating mechanism which ensures that all the community’s members are aware of the actions of their next-door neighbour, placing each one of them under the constant gaze of the community.

The temporal dislocation could be supported by the obsolete character of these rural communities in relation to the urban; however, it can be more easily observed in its colonial character: this enclave assembles, along with its new emplacement, its very own time or temporal enclave, both implanted in the colonized territory. The concept of colony itself allows the interpretation as a temporal fragment, defined by discontinuity and disconnection from everyday life, from “home”. This feature can be either accentuated by the passage of time (when the traditions and techniques brought by the first generations are preserved) or diluted into disappearance. When retaining its colonial character, the whole ensemble appears as a fragment of time, enhanced through heritage protection.

Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, in Dehaene M. and De Cauter L., Heterotopia and the city…, 18.

Appelbaum, Robert, Literature and Utopian Politics in Seventeenth-Century England, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002, in the review written by Williamson, Arthur (California State University-Sacramento), Utopia and the Construction of Modernity, published in H-Ideas, October, 2003, http://​www.​h-net.​org/​reviews/​showrev.​php?​id=​8304, accessed in June 2014.

Idem.

Hetherington, K., The Badlands…, 55, apud. Bauman, Z., Modernity and Ambivalence, Polity Press, 1991.

Hetherington, 56.

Hetherington, 56.

Diggers, or the “1650 communists” (Pepper, David, apud. Miles), demanded “communal ownership of land and goods, the abolition of money, free universal education, replacement of the legal system and community service as punishment for less serious crimes”, Miles, Urban Utopias…, 35.

One such example is Vairasse’s (Denis Vairasse d’ Allais, 1630–1672) utopian novel Histoire des Sevarambes which puts forward precisely this mix of official religion, alternative faith and reason; “ The state religion was philosophical, founded on human reason, with revelation playing only a minor role that wise Sevarambians knew was a political invention.” The proposed hierarchy was composed of an invisible and somewhat distant god (“Since [this] invisible God could be perceived only with the eyes of the mind, He was the object of formal adoration only once every seven years.”), the Sun, as the main (and visible) focus of adoration and source of the predominantly agricultural community’s welfare, and finally a maternal figure, surprisingly associated with the motherland. Manuel…, 380.

The ordering principle is reiterated at any and every scale, in a pyramidal order: the head of the family “governs” his family, maintaining the same power relations as the governor who governs his community, the monarch who governs its society, the sun—the living world, and god—the entire universe. Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World, Belknap Press; New edition, September 15, 1982, 380–3.

This highly diverse community of antiquarians brings together “scholars belonging to all nations of Europe” and perhaps even more surprisingly, belonging to several classes, social ranks and scholarly fields. Among the main representatives, Choay names: Bernard de Montfaucon (1660–1741), Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), Thomas Howard Lord of Arundel (1585–1646), scientists such as Jacob Spon (1647–1685), Francesco Bianchini (1662–1729), an numerous artists, such as Pietro Santi Bartoli (1635–1700) or architects—Julien David Le Roy (1724–1803), James Stuart (1713–1788), Nicholas Revett (1720–1804).

Choay, Alegoria…, 45.

Choay, Alegoria…, 61.

Idem.

Choay, Alegoria…, 66.

More about the approach of the sublime in Piranesi‘s engraving in his artistic and historical context in Ek, Fatma İpek, Şengel, Deniz, Piranesi Between Classical And Sublime, METU JFA 2007/1, (24:1), 17–34.

Kirk, Terry, The Architecture of Modern Italy: The Challenge of Tradition 1750–1900, vol. 1., Princeton Architectural Press, 2005, 48.

Kirk, The Architecture…, 49.

The Etruscan inheritance which Piranesi seeks to evoke, saves Roman culture when accused of being a mere second-hand and unsuccessful copy of the ancient Greek ideal (the sublime par excellence, because it processes at first hand the source of inspiration, nature). By illustrating the Roman monument as a sublime object, Piranesi disrupts the contemporary official ordering, and contributes to the creation and solidification of the quest for national identitary sources, or what will later become the national heritage consciousness.

Invenzioni capric[ciosi] di carceri (1745), Piranesi.

Tafuri, Manfredo, Architecture and Utopia.Design and Capitalist Developement, trans. La Penta, Barbara Luigia, MIT Press, 1976, 16–18.

Tafuri, Architecture…, 18.

Sánchez, Jesús J. Perona, La utopía antigua de Piranesi, EDITUM, 1996, 92.

The title brings together 50 engravings (or 41 according to other scholars) and a bilingual text (lat., It.) about the history of the area, or its urban evolution, analysed based on archaeological findings. The area under consideration was originally outside the city walls; the present functions were: military base, a series of altars and temples, graves; after the city expands, dwellings will be built (urban villae), basilicas, baths, temples and theatres.

Kirk, Terry, The Architecture…, 52.

From the entire collection of engravings, structured in an orderly chronology of the urban development of the area, one—the Ichnographia, (Tavole V–X)—presents the simultaneous ensemble of all these hypostases, or the ideal city—a kaleidoscopic juxtaposition, reconstructed from the ideal instances of its constituting parts, the monuments at their apex, even if an imagined one.

Tafuri, 14.

The represented monuments belong to several temporal instances: from the first and second centuries—a selection of the great and well-known public and private buildings—and from the eighteenth century—the buildings “created” or rather reassembled by Piranesi in the context of his own time.

The term uchronia is defined in short as alternative history; a uchronia proposes a speculative projection or an alternate unfolding of a particular historical event—constructing from a hypothesis an entire alternative universe that could have materialized under the fictitious conditions. In the term’s orthography used here uchronia, differs from the one used in Romanian—ucronia—to emphasize the difference of meaning, where (ro.) ucroníe—n.f. signifies a theory of cultural philosophy according to which the events and facts of civilization in the history of mankind have occurred as an inevitable but not foreseeable consequence of the continuous progress. The orthography of the term has a similar composition to utopia (no place), where < Gk. ou-, “not” + Gk. chronos, “time”.

Dixon, S. M., Illustrating Ancient Rome, or the Ichnographia as Uchronia and Other Time Warps in Piranesi‘s Il Campo Marzio, în Envisioning the Past: Archaeology and the Image, ed. S. Smiles and S. Moser, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK, 2008, 116.

Three contemporary projects are presented—belonging to the Eisenman Architects design office (the project of their own headquarters in New York), to the architecture critic Jeffrey Kipnis (from Ohio State University) and to architect Pier Vittorio Aureli from the DOGMA design office.

The analysis and its resulting model were completed by second year M.arch 12 students, taught by architect Peter Eisenman, at Yale University.

Foucault, Of Other…, 20.

This confusion is observed even by the co-authors of the project. Talk-show: A Conversation on the Piranesi Variations, 27 Februarie 2013, University of Michigan, Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Winter 2013 Events, http://​vimeo.​com/​61530314, viewed in August 2014.

Willis, Daniel, Seven Strategies of Making Architecture, in The Emerald City and Other Essays on the Architectural Imagination, Princeton Architectural Press, 1999, 230.

Willis, Daniel, Seven Strategies for Making Architecture, in The Emerald City and Other Essays on the Architectural Imagination, Princeton Architectural Press, 1999, 230.

The two architects are generally presented together, see Kaufmannn, Emil (Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullée, Ledoux and Laqueu, 1952), Lemagny, Jean-Claude (Visionary architects: Boullée, Ledoux, Lequeu, 1968), Rosenblum, Robert (Transformations in Late Eighteenth Century Art, 1970) and Moffet, Marian and Fazio, Michael (A world History of Architecture, 2003).

Willis, Daniel, The contradictions Underlying the Profession of Architecture, in The Emerald City and Other Essays on the Architectural Imagination, Princeton Architectural Press, 1999, 179.

Willis, Daniel, The contradictions Underlying the Profession of Architecture, in The Emerald City and Other Essays on the Architectural Imagination, Princeton Architectural Press, 1999, 179.

As with Piranesi‘s Carceri, Boullée‘s projects use as method a “hyperbolization” of the form and of the architectural element; both Boullée and Piranesi alter the object’s scale with the purpose of eliciting a sensorial perception (the viewer’s sensation) and to convey the sublime.

Braham, Allan, The Architecture of the Enlightenment, University of California Press, 1989, 116.

Willis, Seven…, 230

Kaufmannn, Emil, Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullée, Ledoux and Laqueu, the American philosophical Society, 1952, 435.

See Palais d’ Assemblée Nationale, Chapelle des Morts, Tour tronconique, Cénotaphes avec leur enceinte, Cirque, le projet (pour Place de L'Étoile), Cénotaphe entouré d’une colonnade, Arc Triomphal avec inscription, Le Cénotaphe de Newton, Grand monument funéraire, Porte de Ville avec des canons, Porte de Ville avec quatre tours—imagined, more profoundly utopian projects, and their more realistic counterparts, Salle d’Opera a l’Emplacement du Carousel, and Bibliotheque publique (sur le Terrain des Capucines), Palais de justice.

Kaufmann, Three Revolutionary…, 466.

Jensen, Joel Kaj, Architecture and Authenticity: Constructing the Ontological, 112.

Vogd, Adolf Max, Donnell, Radka, Bendiner, Kenneth, Orwell’s ‘Nineteen Eighty-Four’ and Etienne-Louis Boullée‘s Drafts of 1784, in The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 43/1 March, 1984, 60–64, 62, accessed in August 2014.

Jensen, Joel Kaj, Architecture and Authenticity: Constructing the Ontological, 110.

Boullée‘s utopian projection and its architectural expression (with a striking modernist character), although generally not appreciated by the general public, are well received in the field, among aspiring architects of the time as well as among numerous students of the Academy, for whom Boullée will later become a mentor and a source of inspiration. For a detailed list and the architect’s influence see Kaufmannn, Three revolutionary…

“According to Boullée, the art of combining the masses effectively is the most important in architecture. All effect is to be derived from the whole, but not from its details. The masses should be grand, and full of movement”; this movement is introduced into the object through the device of ‘shade and shadows’—or the “disposing [of] the masses so that their contrasting forms produce attractive lighting effects.”—Kaufmann speculating Boullée himself as the creator of the device. Kaufmann, Three revolutionary…, 472.

The conceptual foundation and the formal language employed by Boullée are often associated with the totalitarian architecture of the twentieth century, with projects proposed by architects such as Speer.

Kaufmann, Three revolutionary…, 473.

Kaufmann, 488.

Kaufmann provides a detailed description of the functional disposition of the schema: “The forefront contains the gateway, flanked by the apartments of the director and the employees; the left corner pavilion houses the circular chapel with the altar in its center, that to the right, the bakery. The wings and the pavilion of the lateral fronts include the homes of the workers. The rooms destined for the fabrication are located in the rear. The center of the court is marked by a fountain.” Kaufmann, Three revolutionary…, 510.

At the moment of its design, the initial project, and perhaps even the second project, can be considered a purely theoretical proposal: the construction site will be selected only after the project had been elaborated.

The complex consisted of Ledoux‘s ideal city (Chaux/ Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans), The salt mine itself (Salins-les-Bains) and the whole connection system between them (21 km)—a “double water evacuation channel composed of wooden cylinders and protected from place to place by control tower’s”; UNESCO, From the Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains to the Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans, the Production of Open-pan Salt, Advisory Body Evaluation, 1982–2009, http://​whc.​unesco.​org/​archive/​advisory_​body_​evaluation/​203bis.​pdf, August 2014.

Another architecture parlante example in the complex’s architecture is featured on the main facade of the entrance building: a series of carved, wall-mounted urns seem to pour out “the precious fluid that evokes the salt mine, the source of the city’s wealth”; other examples are: the Coopers’ building—Atelier des cercles—“a simple cube, the four fronts of which are formed by gigantic concentric circles inscribed in square (frames)”, a “a fantasy pattern representative of its function”; the church, which reiterates the Greek cross in its layout; the chapel-like cemetery building, with its spherical central hall—a geometry associated by Boullée as well with the void evoke by eternity and death or the infinite nature of the universe; the Atelier des bûcherons, gardes de la forêt, a pyramidal volume made of overlapping logs; then Maison des directeurs de la Loue, where the water course passes through the cylindrical pipe-like upper segment of the building; Kaufmann, Three revolutionary…, 514, 516–7, 524, 527, 535.

Kaufmann notes that the passageway successfully combines three non-homogeneous elements: “the classical features, the pseudo-natural romantic finish, and the new cubism”. Kaufmann, Three revolutionary…, 514.

Kaufmann, 512.

UNESCO, From the Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains to the Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans, the Production of Open-pan Salt, Advisory Body Evaluation, 1982–2009, 230, http://​whc.​unesco.​org/​archive/​advisory_​body_​evaluation/​203bis.​pdf, August 2014.

UNESCO, From the Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains…, 233.

Idem., 234.

Idem.

Kaufmann, 510.

These planned almost self-sufficient enclaves, designed and built by companies, proliferate in the nineteenth century; although the residential fabric and the buildings designated for services and leisure are sometimes vaster than the production facilities they serve, they are in fact their annexes; the ideal functioning is in “close circuit”, entirely structuring the life of the company’s employees—most times including the religious and moral aspect. This formula is entirely imagined and sketched in Ledoux‘s proposal, although preceding its more modern full-fledged industrial variants, the company towns.

Kaufmann, 519.

Idem.

Kaufmannn, 519.

Kaufmannn, 521.

Kaufmannn, 522.

Kaufmannn, 521.

Date of inscription: 1982, extended in 2009.

UNESCO, World Heritage List, From the Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains to the Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans, the Production of Open-pan Salt, http://​whc.​unesco.​org/​en/​list/​203/​, accessed August 2014.

Foucault, M., Of other spaces (1967), (translated by Lieven De Cauter and Michiel Dehaene), in eds. Dehaene, Michiel and De Cauter, Lieven, Heterotopia and the city: public space in a postcivil society, Routledge, 20.

Miles, Urban Utopias..., 37.

Manuel, 581.

Manuel, 587.

Manuel, 581.

Manuel, 587.

Manuel, 651.

Manuel, 660.

Miles, Urban Utopias..., 41.

Fouries introduces a neologism, by combining ‘le monastère' (the monastery) and ‘la phalange'. Victor Considerant, Exposition abrégée du système phalanstérien, de Fourier, Paris, Librairie sociétaire, 2ème éd., 1845, 24, apud. Pierre Mercklé, mars 2006, Le Phalanstère, in Le Site de l’Association d’etudes fourieristes et des Cahiers Charles Fourier, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article328#nh2, accessed August 2014.

Morris, James M., Kross, Andreea L., The A to Z of Utopianism, no. 36, The Scarecrow Press Inc., Plymouth, Great Britain, 2009, 108.

Choay, L'Urbanisme..., 19.

Fourier, Charles, Ciotes Ouvrieres. Des Modifications a introduire dans l'architecture des villes, 1848, 18, gallica.bnf.fr/Bibliotheque Nationale de France, accessed August 2014.

Fourier, Le Nouveau monde..., 145.

Fourier, Le Nouveau monde..., 147.

Fourier, Le Nouveau monde..., 152.

Mercklé, Pierre, mars 2006, Le Phalanstère, in Le Site de l’Association d’etudes fourieristes et des Cahiers Charles Fourier, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article328#nh2, accessed August 2014.

Morris, Kross, The A to Z of Utopianism, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth, Marea Britanie, 2009, 108-9.

Desmars, Bernard , Être fouriériste en province. Nicolas Lemoyne, propagandiste du Phalanstère, Cahiers Charles Fourier, 7/1996, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article 28, accessed August 2014. See also Guarneri, Carl, J., The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-century America, Cornell University Press, 1994, 23.

Guarneri, Carl, J., The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-century America, Cornell University Press, 1994, 23.

Garner, John, Noisiel-sur-Marne and the Ville Industrielle in France in The Company Town. Architecture and Society in the Early Industrial Age, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992, 43–73, 47–8.

The compound is gradually created and, besides residences (fully equipped), schools are built as well (providing free education for the employees’ children), a free-access library, restaurants, cafeterias, various shops, a savings bank and a clinic (free medical assistance for the employees’ families). More details by Garner, J., Noisiel-sur-Marne and the Ville Industrielle in France in The Company Town. Architecture and Society in the Early Industrial Age, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992, 43–73.

The Cadbury brothers design the ensemble with the declared intention of raising the life standard in the industrial environment; the town is newly built and it assembles around the industrial area and its production annexes not only the residential area—with affordable yet high-quality duplexes—but other communitarian facilities. The imagined scenario is laxer than its predecessors, as these residential units and the family units they accommodate, are conceived as autonomous, as opposed to the communal living formula of Godin’s familistère. The ensemble complies with the then new hygienist principles of lighting, ventilation and the density; the social facilities promote education (community centre, school) and sports (playgrounds, football, cricket, swimming pools, etc.)—suggesting a similar normed and controlled functioning typical of the ideal city model, yet in a more diffuse form. Trahair, R.C.S., Utopias and Utopians: An Historical Dictionary, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, 45–6.

“Bournville factory in a garden”, the company motto assumed at the founding the Bournville complex, https://​www.​cadbury.​co.​uk/​the-story, accessed in August 2014.

Raymond Unwin will also take part in the designing of the new town of Letchworth (1904, Letchworth Garden-City, Hertfordshire, Great Britain), based on Ebenezer Howard’s utopian plans.

Adams, Thomas, Early Urban Planning, vol. 9, Taylor and Francis, 2004, 271.

From the periphery towards the centre each ‘ring’ or perimeter is homogenously designed in a specific style: the so-called Gothic order deemed as ‘barbaric’ or vulgar at the time is reserved for the outermost perimeter, followed by the classical Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and finally the Composite orders.

Foucault, M., Of Other…, 21.

The newly coined term is formed based on Fourier’s term of “phalanstery“ and it is recorded in 1860 in Jean-Baptiste André Godin’s letters to his son. Panni, Frédéric, Jean-Baptiste André Godin, Dictionnaire biographique du fouriérisme, published in February 2014, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article1287, accessed in August 2014.

Godin reiterates a Fourierist principle in the development of his familistère—the construction and the operation of an initial ‘trial’ phalanstery-unit before implementing a full-scale phalanstery.

The experiment of La Reunion phalanstery, in Dallas, Texas, USA, initiated in 1885 by Victor Considerant, one of Fourier’s disciples.

Panni, Frédéric, Jean-Baptiste André Godin, original quote: “L’industriel n’est pas seulement le promoteur du Familistère, il s’en fait l’urbaniste, l’ingénieur et l’architecte. Il conçoit l’organisation générale du « Palais social » et pendant trente ans, il met au point avec inventivité ses dispositions matérielles particulières, architecturales, domestiques, économiques et sociales.” In Dictionnaire biographique du fouriérisme, published in February 2014, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article1287 accessed in August 2014.

The new facilities are aimed at improving the quality of life of the company’s employee as well as retaining him and his income within the ensemble; the mix of facilities (a pharmacy, a nursery, a preschool, a school, a library, a theatre, a laundry and a swimming pool—the latter positioned right between the production and the housing areas, thus anticipating the modern hygienist functional zoning) forms an arrangement which is not only hygienist, in the sense of ensuring an improved working and habitational medium, but also educational, promoting a so-called hygiene of the mind through physical activity, education and culture.

Initially, the schema has a classical paternalist basis, and the ensemble’s association had Godin as its main decisional factor and shareholder; however, his declared intention and project is to transfer the property rights and the responsibility to the employee association, thus granting them a self-governing power—essentially illustrating a dynamic variant of the paternalistic model. More in Panni, Frédéric, Jean-Baptiste André Godin, Dictionnaire biographique du fouriérisme, published in February 2014, http://​www.​charlesfourier.​fr/​spip.​php?​article1287 accessed in August 2014.

“le développement durable d’une communauté solidaire”, Panni, Frédéric, Jean-Baptiste André Godin…,

Godin attributes the failure of other phalansteries to the unwillingness to work of the Fourierist enthusiasts. Panni, Frédéric, Jean-Baptiste André Godin…,

The ensemble is partially classified in 1991, under the name of Cité ouvrière dite Familistère Godin, Picardie/Aisne/Guise/France, address: rue André-Godin (rue Sadi-Carnot, allée des Peupliers), author: Calland Victor (architect), the second half of the nineteenth-century, reference code: IA02000890, https://inventaire.hautsdefrance.fr/dossier/ancienne-cite-ouvriere-dite-familistere-godin/4da6d304-5831-42fa-908f-9661b81b486a, accessed in July 2014.

Manuel, Manuel, Utopian Thought…, 762.

Manuel, Manuel, 763.

Manuel, Manuel, 764.

Clayes, G., Sargent, L., T., The Utopia Reader…, 301.

“the sweet sense of neighborhood, of brotherhood, which blessed the golden age of the first Christian republic is ours again. Every year the people of each Region meet one another on Evolution day, in the Regionic capital; once in four years, they all visit the national capital. There is no danger of the decay of patriotism among us; our country is our mother.”; on science: “we had completed the round of your [the outsiders] inventions and discoveries […]; and we have since disused most of them as idle and unfit. But we profit, now and then, by the advances you make in science, for we are passionately devoted to the study of the natural laws, open or occult, under which all men have their being.” Howells, W.D., A Traveler from Altruria, 301–311, in eds. Clayes, G., Sargent, L., T., The Utopia Reader…, New York University Press, 1999, 305–306.

Howells, W.D., A Traveler from Altruria, 301–311, in eds. Clayes, G., Sargent, L., T., The Utopia Reader…, New York University Press, 1999, 303.

Choay, L’Urbanisme…, 16.

Claeys, Gregory, ed., Selected Works of Robert Owen, London, 1993, vol. 4, p. 112., apud. Davidson, Lorna and Arnold, Jim, The Great Experiment: New Lanark from Robert Owen to World Heritage Site, in Williams, Chris and Thompson, Noel, eds., University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 2011, 55–70, 56.

Manuel, 679.

Davidson, Lorna and Arnold, Jim, The Great Experiment: New Lanark from Robert Owen to World Heritage Site, in Williams, Chris and Thompson, Noel, eds., University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 2011, 55–70, 64.

Manuel, 679.

Idem.

Owen, R., Appendix 1, Report to the Committee of the Association for the Relief of the Manufacturing and Labouring Poor, referred to the Committee of the House of Commons on the Poor Laws, March, 1817, 138–141, in The Life of Robert Owen, Vol. 1, ed. Wilson, 1858, original copy from Harvard University, scanned: 8 March 2008, via Google Books, http://​books.​google.​com/​books?​id=​pLQWAAAAYAAJ, accessed in August 2014.

Owen, R., Report to the Committee…

Donnachie, Ian, Orbiston: The First British Owenite Community 1825–28, Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic Journal, 2/2006, <http://​ler.​letras.​up.​pt> ISSN 1646–4729, accessed in August 2014.

Father Johann Georg Rapp (1757–1847), an American religious leader of German origin, founds the Rappite sect (Harmonists) and, based on the same community cooperation principle, they set up the Equality Community in Harmony, Pennsylvania (1805), and Harmonie, South Indiana (1814), later acquired by Owen (in 1825). http://​www.​britannica.​com/​EBchecked/​topic/​491531/​George-Rapp, accessed in August 2014.

The Panopticon, a circular prison model project, is created by Jeremy Bentham as a proposal in the social reform project of the eighteenth century; deriving from it is panopticism, defined as a theory of prison management and surveillance, and an essential characteristic of the nineteenth-century detention system. Foucault examines and popularizes the term in his history of the prison, Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la Prison (1975).

Miles, M., Urban Utopias…, 49.

http://​www.​britannica.​com/​EBchecked/​topic/​436254/​Robert-Owen, accessed in August 2014.

Laboratories of the new social orderings, laboratories of modernity—or laboratories for testing alternatives to a dominant ordering—all define a concept coined by Kevin Hetherington in The Badlands of Modernity: Heterotopia and Social Ordering (1997, republished Taylor & Francis, Nov 1).

Almost all devise a “quarantine” space, meant for the curious potential recruit or for those who take a scientific interest in studying the utopian mechanism—also potential proselytes and ‘disseminators’. Such spaces are present in Fourier’s and Owen’s formulas, and it is in fact a variation of the monasteries’ separate visitor areas.

Segal, H.P., Utopias…, 59.

Coleman, N., Utopias…, 23.

Manuel, 770.

Choay, Françoise. L’urbanisme, utopies et réalités. Une anthologie. Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1965, 24.

Coleman, 78.

Jokilehto, Jukka, A History of Architectural Conservation, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002, 175.

Duncan, Ian, Reactionary Desire: Roskin and the Work of Fiction, in Ruskin and Modernism, Giovanni Cianci, Peter Nicholls, 67–81, Palgrave, 2001, 72.

Duncan, I., Reactionary…, 72.

Cockram, 39.

Cockram, 66.

Cockram, 79.

Rockey, John, An Australian Utopist, in The New Zeeland Journal of History, vol. 15, no. 2, October 1981, 157–178, 171.

Pemberton, Robert, Model town for the happy colony, to be established in New Zealand by the workmen of Great Britain, projected by Robert Pemberton, FRSL. Robert Wm Armstrong, Archt. London, Day & Son, Lithographers to the Queen, [1854], http://​mp.​natlib.​govt.​nz/​detail/​?​id=​23520, accessed in August 2014.

Choay, 30.

Choay, 30.

The economic schema imagined by Howard implied that the town’s construction and the acquisition of the land would be resolved through a charity obtained low capital. Once the community is built, the town would be governed by a managing board/trust committee, equally comprised of the initial investors and the community’s representatives (all pursuing the community’s welfare); the governing organism would centralize the collected rents in a social fund intended exclusively for the town’s necessities—thus eliminating the state as an administrative entity, and gradually becoming the common property of all the community members.

These two major principles, decentralization and the reorganization of the rural, aimed at reducing urban pressure, are solutions that circulate long before the crystallization of Howard’s concept—making an appearance in Buckingham’s utopian projection on the ideal town model (1849), in Alfred Marshall’s (1884), plan for the decentralization and re-orienting of the pressure towards dedicate industrial settlements (variants of the company town), or in Edward Bellamy’s utopian projection, Looking Backward (1888).

Clavel, Pierre, Ebenezer Howard and Patrik Geddes: Two Approaches to City Developement, in From Garden City to Green City, The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Parsons, Kermit C. and Schuyler, David, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 2002, 38–57, 42.

“Differences in methods of raising capital, administration, ownership of the sites and public services, land tenure, the size of the estate, the proportion reserved for agriculture, restrictions on growth, layout, and the system of distribution”, but also the architectural expression (very diverse, from Neo-Gothic to Arts and Crafts and modernism); as Hardy notes, the “fundamental principles” of Howard’s theory are replaced by a “mixture of pragmatism and an ideological preference for a more commercial approach than Howard originally envisaged”. Hardy, Dennis, From Garden Cities to New Towns, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004, 55.

This hybrid class of attempts includes many new towns: in France—Cité des Foyers-Pantin (1910–12), Epinay “Blumenthal” (1912–14–27), Champigny-sur-Marne (1931–3), Reims (Trois Fontaines, Chemin Vert 1923, Maison-Blanche), Suresnes (1921–1939), Bruno (Bruno Ancienne, 1904 and Bruno Nouvelle, 1920), Stains (1921–27), Drancy (Drancy-1, 1920, Drancy-La Muette, 1933, a modernist garden-city with large-scale collective buildings, subsequently turned dystopian as it is transformed into a concentration camp during World War II) Pré Saint-Gervais (1928–34–52), Promper, Margodillot, Lens, Anzin, Clochette, etc.; in Belgium: Winterslag (a set of three garden-cities, 1913–48), Anderlecht, Cheratte, Klein Rusland in Selzaete (Flanders, 1921–23), the cubist La Cité Moderne-Berchem Saine Agathe and Kappeleveld (both near Brussels, 1922–25 and 1922–26, respectively), Logis-Floréal at Watermael-Boitsfort, the largest Belgian interwar garden-city (1921–30); other Belgian attempts see Lambrichs, Anne, Les Cites-Jardins en Belgique [Lambrichs, Anne. (2018). Les Cites-Jardins en Belgique. Ciudades: Revista del Instituto Universitario de Urbanistica de la Universidad de Valladolid, ISSN 1133-6579, No. 6, 2000–2001, pp. 57–74. 6. https://​doi.​org/​10.​24197/​ciudades.​06.​2000.​57-74]. In Germany: Hellerau (1909–1913), Römerstadt (1928); in Italy (Milanino, 1909, Aniene, 1920); but also in Russia, Spain, Holland and Austria. [See Selvafolta, Ornella, Temi e luoghi della citta-giardino in Italia nei primi decenni del Novecento, in Ciudades—Revista del Instituto Universitario de Urbanística de la Universidad de Valladolid, 75–97, no. 6/2000–2001, coord. Roger-Henri Guerrand, María A. Castrillo Romón].

Original quote: […] le gouvernement australien a choisi délibérément le langage formel symbolique de ce plan pour exprimer «l’idéal de nation» .” Devereux, Mike, Les cités-jardins, un idéal à poursuivre, in Les Cahiers de l’IAU IdF, n° 165/April, 2013, 10–13, 12.

Miles, Urban Utopias, 65.

Howard, Ebenezer, Garden cities of to-morrow, (being the second edition of “To-morrow: a peaceful path to real reform”), published by S. Sonnenschein & co., ltd., London, 1902, 18.

Howard, Garden cities…, 17–18.

Foucault, M., Of Other…, 20.

Foucault differentiates between the heterotopias of an “indefinitely accumulating time” and the heterotopias “that are linked, on the contrary, to time in its most futile, most transitory, most precarious aspect”, or the heterotopias of a festive mode; Foucault, Of Other…, 20.

Foucault, Of Other…, 21.

Foucault, Of Other…, 22.

Jencks, Charles, Le Corbusier and the Tragic View of Architecture, Allen Lane Penguin Books Ltd., London, 1975, 66.

Jencks, C., Le Corbusier and the Tragic…, 70.

Fishman, R., Urban Utopias.., 4–5.

This unrealized project is created in cooperation with Paul Otelet. The purpose “of the Mundaneum is to expose and make known by literature, objects and words: How Men, from their humble origins, have elevated themselves to the splendour of their Geniuses, their Heroes and their Saints; How the World was discovered and, its Foreces being brought under control, was almost entirely settles; How the Cities Nations ans Civilizations grew up…”. [Mundaneum Project, 1929,] It has a symmetrical, hierarchical orthogonal layout, which culminates in a pyramidal building sheltering a universal and “infinite” museum (Musee a croissance illimite/Museum of Unlimited Growth): “a spiral in plan and stepped pyramid in section, which would show the various stages of civilization in continuous development”; “the world library and university are (located) on either side of the axis, while the stadium is the terminal point of another (axis).” Based on this layout and its variant, Corbusier designs two versions of the infinite museum, in Japan and India, respectively. Jencks, Le Corbusier…, 115.

Jencks, Le Corbusier…, 123.

“a new architecture, applying the new building techniques and the new vision of space”, Choay, L’Urbanisme…, 233. [original quote: “une architecture nouvelle, mettant en oeuvre les novelles techniques de construction et la nouvelle vision de l’espace”].

“The contemporary city had no history”. Fishman, 205.

Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, MIT Press, 1982, 205.

Jencks, Charles, Le Corbusier and the Tragic View of Architecture, Allen Lane Penguin Books Ltd., London, 1975, 65.

Idem.

Even though the architect accuses the disorder of the existing town, emerging from an ‘unrestrained’ formal variation, on a different occasion he accuses the same inherited town of formal uniformity and banality, which are then linked to a lack of technical knowledge and technical possibility; the suggested panacea for both situations, regardless of their indictment, is the new modern architecture. More in Jencks and Choay, op.cit.

Le Corbusier, Plan Voisin, Paris, France, 1925, [“Ici, tout a coup, on est devant une charmante eglise gothique, bercee par les feuillages; c’est St-Martin ou St-Merry du XIXme ou du XVme siècle.”], in Le Corbusier et Pierre Jeanneret. Oeuvre complete 1910–1929, publiee par W. Boesiger et O. Stonorov, Introduction et textes par Le Corbusier, Les Editions D’Architecture, Artemis, 1974, vol. 1. (1910–1929), 114.

Idem.

Lamprakos, Michele, Le Corbusier and Algiers. The Plan Obus as Colonial Urbanism, in Forms of Dominance, on The Architecture and Urbanism of the Colonial Enterprise, Ethnoscapes Series, 183–210, AlSayyad, Nezar, Avebury, 1992, 194.

Lamprakos, Le Corbusier and Algiers…, 195.

Idem.

Le Corbusier, 1932, apud. Lamparkos, 196.

Lamparkos, 196.

Idem.

Lamparkos, 202.

[…] creative individuality [the ideal of the Usonian society] must have its roots in a stable community whose values the citizen shares and protects. […] Yet, these [value bearing] institutions can have no ultimate power over the citizen. […] everyone must be free to pursue his own conception of what is right, regardless of the consequences for the stability of society. The individual is thus dependent on a stable community, yet his freedom to question and to negate is always a potential threat to the society which nurtured him.” Fishman, Robert, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, MIT Press, 1982, 157.

Fishman, Robert, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, MIT Press, 1982, 157–8.

The plotting is regulated (4,000 m²/household) but multiple plots can be cumulated, depending on individual capacities; the occupation of the plot is completely controlled by the architect, but it must reflect the individual’s needs and capacities.

Fishman, Robert, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, MIT Press, 1982, 158.

For a detailed exploration of the phenomenon and one of its case studies—Los Angeles—see Fishman, Robert, Bourgeois Utopias. The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, Basic Books Inc., New York, 1987.

The term is assigned by Fishman to a particular kind of suburbanization: one that does not retain a monofunctionality and a subordination relationship in relation to an urban centre—a suburbanization that is in itself a multifunctional built fabric of an other city, with multiple business and commerce centres, dominated by the residential (in the idealized form of single-family units) and dependent on infrastructure. The formula is quite on par with today’s metropolitan development and the urban regions.

Fishman, R., Bourgeois…, 205. See also Fishman Robert. Metropolis unbound: the new city of the twentieth century. 43–55, in: Flux, 1/1990, doi: https://​doi.​org/​10.​3406/​flux.​1990.​1172, https://​www.​persee.​fr/​doc/​flux_​1154-2721_​1990_​num_​6_​1_​1172, 44–45.

Fishman outlines H.G. Wells’ utopian work—“The Probable Diffusion of Great Cities”, published in 1900, projection of a city in the future of 2000; Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias..., passim.

More on the futurist perspective on heritage as decandent, in the movement’s doctrinary text from 1909, by F. T. Marinetti’s [Futurist Manifesto].

Kargon, Robert, H., Molella, Arthur, P., Invented Edens. Techno-Cities of the Twentieth Century, MIT PressCambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, 2008, 28.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 40.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 40.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 40.

The “iron and rye” ideal, represented as a combination of industry and agriculture “Germany’s official development policy dating from Bismarck’s Sammlungspolitik (politics of “pulling together”)”, Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 40.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 40.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 41.

“Salzgitter was to function as—and be—an organism at one with nature, a Nazi garden-city.” Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 43.

Kagon, Molella, Invented Edens, 45.

This focus on sport and health through sport is not new, and is common for the epoch; the source invoked in the case of Saltzgitter and in the Natzi ideology is debatable—as part of the hygienist movement or perhaps going back to the idealized Antiquity and the greek model. Quote from Kagon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 44.

http://​issuu.​com/​instituteforsust​ainableurbanism/​docs/​wob_​4_​-_​online_​version, Carlow publishing house, Vanessa Miriam, WOB 4.0., Thinking the Un-thought, Szenarien fur die Autostadt, ISU—Institute for Sustainable Urbanism, Wolksburg und Seine Planungen, Bauen auf der grunen wiese, 10.

The initiative of the Volkswagen Company results in several internationally acclaimed projects: Autostadt Wolfsburg, Henn Architekten (1996–2000), Seat-Pavilion, Alfredo Arribas (2001) Phaeno Science Centre, Zaha Hadid Architects (2006), Autostadt Roof and Service Pavilion, Graft Architects (2013).

The evolution stages and the main projects involved in Schneider, Nicole, Wolfsburg. Eine Stadt verandert ihr Gesicht: Von der industriallen Wohnstadt zum Dienstleistungs und Freizeitzentrum/Wolfsburg. A City changes its appearance: From industrial colony to service and leisure center, Stadt Wolfsburg publishing house, Kramer, Werner, Guthardt, Wolfgang, Siegfried, Klaus-Jorg, 2001, http://​www.​wolfsburg-staedtebau.​de/​stadtwob_​1.​pdf, accessed in August 2014.

Burdett, Charles, Journeys to the other spaces of Fascist Italy, Modern Italy, 5:1, 7–23, 2000, DOI: https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​1353294005000301​4, 8.

“The new towns were supposed to be the architectural manifestation of the Fascist state in stylistic questions as well as regarding the image of society, which they were to represent, for they were a prestige object of national and international importance”, Spiegel, Daniela, The Relics of the Fascist Regime on Italuan Buildings, or Who is afraid of the Fascio Littorio, 61–66 in Edinburgh Architecture Research Journal—EAR, no. 29, 2004, 63.

Nuti, Lucia, La Città Nuova nella cultura urbanistica e architettonica del fascismo, METODO, N. 17/2001, in Architettura—Urbanistica: Carbonia, “città di fondazione”, http://​www.​globnet.​it/​carbonia/​cittadifondazion​e.​htm, accessed in August 2014.

Burdett, Charles, Journeys to the other spaces of Fascist Italy, Modern Italy, 5:1, 7–23, 2000, DOI: https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​1353294005000301​4, 9.

Burdett, C., Journeys to the other spaces…, 9.

Burdett addresses these ‘internal colonies’ along with other “segregated institutions or heterotopias [which] served an indispensable role in subjecting the individual to the control of the state” and as “vehicles for the expression of articles of faith, places of ritualistic or sacred importance, where grand narratives of the past, present and future could be experienced.”. Burdett identifies these “sites of commemoration, the prison and the internal colony” as heterotopian spaces, which illustrate all of Foucault’s principles of the heterotopia. Burdett, C., Journeys to the other spaces…, 9.

Burdett, C., idem.

This identitary construct is however a mere appendage in the larger apparatus assembled through the Fascist endeavour: fascism is “a civic religion” comprised of “a set of beliefs, myths and liturgical practices which could make appeals to the whole of the Italian people”. “At the core of the Fascist religious system lay the cult of the nation, understood as a sacred community awoken from centuries of decadence […]”. Burdett, Charles, Journeys to the other spaces of Fascist Italy, Modern Italy, 5:1, 7–23, 2000, DOI: https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​1353294005000301​4, 9.

Together with the BBPR group members—Ernesto Nathan Rogers, Gian Luigi Banfi, Ludovico Belgiojoso, and Enrico Peressutti, engineer Gaetano Ciocca also takes part. More in Kargon and Molella, Invented Edens…, 91–95.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 93.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 95.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 102.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 102.

Idem., 104.

Idem., 105.

“Power was vested in three entities: a president elected under universal suffrage, a vice-president elected only by workers and trade unionists, and a cultural representative elected by ‘men of competence’”, Kargon, Molella, 105.

Idem.

Social establishments—institutions in the everyday sense of that term—are buildings or plants in which activity of a particular kind regularly goes on…. Each captures something of the time and interest of its members and provides something of a world for them. […] Their encompassing or total character is symbolized by the barrier to social intercourse with the outside that is often built right into the physical plant: locked doors, high walls, barbed wire, cliffs and water, open terrain”, Goffman, Erving, The Characteristics of Total Institutions, initially published in Symposium on Preventive and Social Psychiatry, 15–17 April 1957, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington D.C.

Idem.

Wachsmann, Nikolaus, The dynamics of destruction. The development of the concentration camps, 1933–1945, 17–44 in Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany. The New Histories., eds. Caplan, Jane, and Wachsmann, Nikolaus, Routledge, 2010.

Sudjic, Deyan, The Edifice Complex: How the Rich and Powerful—and Their Architects—Shape the World, Penguin, 2006, fn., via Google Books, accessed in August 2014.

Gonen, Jay Y., The Roots of Nazi Psychology: Hitler’s Utopian Barbarism, University Press of Kentucky, 2000, 3.

Sargisson, Lucy, Green Utopias of Self and Other, în The Philosophy of Utopia, Barbara Goodwin publishing house, Routledge, 2012, 141.

Sargisson, Lucy, Green Utopias of Self and Other, 141.

Speer, A., Inside the Third Reich. Memoirs by Albert Speer, translated from the German by Richard and Clara Winston, introduction by Eugene Davidson, New York, Macmillan Company, 1970, 76.

Speer, 77.

Speer, 78.

Speer, 134.

Sudjic, Deyan, The Edifice Complex: How the Rich and Powerful—and Their Architects—Shape the World, Penguin, 2006, fn., via googlebook.​com, accessed in August 2014.

Speer, 135.

The compensation would be in both size and ‘content’, “The station plaza, thirty-three hundred feet long and a thousand feet wide, was to be lined with captured weapons, after the fashion of the Avenue of Rams which leads from Karnak to Luxor.”; a “combination of an armory and [a] veterans’ memorial […]” would receive as its first exhibit “the dining car in which the surrender of Germany had been signed in 1918 and the surrender of France in 1940 was to be brought here”; “a crypt was planned for the tombs of celebrated German field marshals of the past, present, and future”. Speer, 134–6.

Speer, 97.

Beltran and Roca include the German Prora resort-town in the category of “New holiday towns [NHT]”, that “were born in the early twentieth century when holiday leave became a legal right for the working class, building the environment of a modern way of life based on leisure time, a healthy life based on sun and beach, far away from the city, the pollution, and work routine.” The envisaged diverse functional profile—a permanent resort-town and not just a seasonal resort—suggests the self-sufficiency argument. For the Spanish counterpart of Prora see Beltran, Lidia; Roca Cladera, José Nicasio. New holiday towns as Non-places: the case of Marina d’Or. A: Conference of the International Forum on Urbanism. “6th Conference of the International Forum on Urbanism (IFoU): TOURBANISM, Barcelona, 25–27 gener”. Barcelona: IFoU, 2012, p. 1–10.; also Carcelén González, Ricardo. La ordenación del reposo en la España del régimen franquista: las ciudades sindicales y la cualificación para el descanso. A: Seminario Internacional de Investigación en Urbanismo. “VIII Seminario Internacional de Investigación en Urbanismo, Barcelona-Balneário Camboriú, Junio 2016”. Barcelona: DUOT, 2016.

Official page of Prora resort, http://​www.​proradok.​de, accessed in February 2014.

Grein, Adam W. (major), The Third Reich’s Macroeconomic Policies: Enablers Of Genocide, thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Master of Military Art and Science, published by Pickle Partners Publishing, 2014, (accessed via googlebooks.​com) 36.

The “[…] strictly functional band city plans of Le Corbusier for Algiers (1931) and Ernst May for Magnitogorsk (1929)”. Dorries, Cornelia, Prora oder: Die Unschuldsvermutung in der Architektur, 29. Juni 2015, In Architektur+Raum, Ausbau, Deutsches Architektenblatt, https://​dabonline.​de/​2015/​06/​29/​prora-oder-die-unschuldsvermutu​ng-in-der-architektur-binz-ferienanlage-insel-massentourismus-nationalsozialis​mus-ddr-ruegen-koloss-kraft-durch-freude-sowjetunion-kommunismus-wohnen-appartments-geschic/​, accessed September 2018.

“At the 1937 World’s Fair in Paris, Klotz’s design receives the Grand Prix—for the first architectural manifestation of modern mass tourism.” Dorries, Cornelia, Prora oder: Die Unschuldsvermutung in der Architektur…, f.n.

The “communal houses” house restaurants, dining rooms and leisure facilities. Dorries, Cornelia, Prora oder: Die Unschuldsvermutung in der Architektur…, f.n.

The ensemble was automatically multifunctional: the buildings of administration compound, the accommodation units for tourists and employees, squares and parks, festivity rooms, pools, restaurants, coffee houses and theatres, cinemas, sports fields and garages.

Since then it houses “a hostel, alternative cultural initiatives, small galleries and a café [that] have settled in the reasonably usable tracts over the years, the provisionally secured property has become neglected and rapidly decaying.” More recently several luxury hotels and other smaller scale accommodation are gradually recoding the ensemble. Dorries, Cornelia, Prora oder: Die Unschuldsvermutung in der Architektur…, f.n.

Dorries, Cornelia, Prora oder: Die Unschuldsvermutung in der Architektur…, f.n.

The Prora resort has been discussed as a heterotopic space by Matthew Philpotts in The Ruins of Dictatorship: Prora and Other Spaces, Central Europe Journal, Volume 12, 2014—Issue 1: ‘Remembering Dictatorship’, 47–61, https://​doi.​org/​10.​1179/​1479096314z.​00000000022.

Hoorn, Mélanie van der, Indispensable Eyesores: An Anthropology of Undesired Buildings, Berghahn Series: vol. 10, Berghahn Books, 2009, 172.

Petrescu, Doina, The People’s House, or the “voluptuous violence” of an architectural paradox, in Architecture and Revolution: Contemporary Perspectives on Central and Eastern Europe, Leach, Neil, Routledge, Taylor & Francis E-Library, 2004, 188–195, 189.

Petrescu, Doina, The People’s House…, 191.

Petrescu, The People’s House…, 195.

“the huge building of Casa Republicii did not have an explicit and pragmatic aim, the intention—as it emerges from the printed media—being rather to celebrate the glorious times of socialism, the golden era of Ceausescu and Ceausescu himself.” Tulbure, Irina, From Casa Scânteii to Casa Poporului and Back Architecture as Icon of a Totalitarian Regime, 79–89, in Studies in History and Theory of Architecture-Studii de Istoria si Teoria Arhitecturii (sITA), vol. 1/2013: Printed in Red. Architectural Writings during Communism, ISSN (print): 2344-6544 | ISSN (online): 2457-1687 | ISSN-L: 2344-6544, 86.

Tulbure, Irina, From Casa Scânteii to Casa Poporului and Back…, 86.

Petrescu, 190.

“Ceausescu was inspired (and advised?) in choosing it by a series of projects that envisaged the same area: the construction of the Patriarchal Cathedral in the interwar period and the potential construction of a new University Center in Bucharest, stipulated in a draft version of the mid-sixties systematization plan for Bucharest. But the source of inspiration can also be easily found in the projects of the Fifties for Bucharest (also draft sketches) that imagined the systematization of Dâmbovita and the creation of a great landscape of skyscrapers accommodating cultural and educational facilities.” Tulbure, Irina, From Casa Scânteii to Casa Poporului and Back…, 87–88.

At least under the regime. Petrescu, 190.

Golomshtok, Igor, Totalitarian Art in the Soviet Union, the Third Reich, Fascist Italy and the People’s Republic of China, transl. Robert Chandler, New York, NY: Icon Editions, 1990,

Groys, Boris, The Total Art of Stalinism: Avant-garde, Aesthetic Dictatorship, and Beyond, transl. Charles Rougle, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.

And others—Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914–1991, Peter Smith Pub Inc., 2001; Sudjic, The Edifice Complex: The Architecture of Power, Penguin Books, 2011 [2005].

“Sources: Ancient, Biblical, and Medieval Traditions”; “OtherWorlds: Utopian Imagination from More to the Enlightenment”; “Utopia in History: From the Revolutionary Age Through the Nineteenth Century”; and “Dreams and Nightmares: Utopias and Dystopias in the Twentieth Century”, Segal, H., P., Utopias, A Brief History from Ancient Writings to Virtual Communities, Wiley-Blackwell, John Wiley & Sons, 2012, 242.

Choay, F., Pentru o antropologie a spațiului, Biblioteca Urbanismul (Serie nouă), ed. Registrul Urbaniștilor din România, transl. Kovacs, K., București, 2011 (2006), 227.

Lopez, Oscar, Paolo Soleri’s Arcosanti: The City in the Image of Man, 03 Sept 2011, ArchDaily accessed on 12 August 2014, http://​www.​archdaily.​com/​?​p=​159763/ https://​www.​archdaily.​com/​159763/​paolo-soleris-arcosanti-the-city-in-the-image-of-man/​. ISSN 0719-8884.

Lopez, idem.

Miles, M., Urban utopias…, 186.

Miles, M., Urban…, 186.

Idem.

Based on the arcology principles, Soleri imagines a series of “ideal towns” (model typologies for communities with different population) and drafts various versions: Hexahedron Arcology, Babel Canyon, Arcvillage Arcology, Arcube Arcology, Stonebow Arcology, 3D Jersey Arcology (1969), Two Suns arcology (1975), APSEDRA (or Nudging Space arcology, 2003), Lean Linear City (2005).

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 132.

Idem.

The first theme park, Disneyland Park, in Anaheim, California (1955), is rapidly extending and, as Kargon and Molella point out, it starts to raise the typical issues of a traditional city (transport and traffic, urban arrangement, etc.). Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 132.

According to the original master plan, the ensemble extends on 111.37 km², and it includes a theme park, an airport, a visitor complex, an industrial park—all of which connected by a specialized traffic system, distributed on multiple levels; in the very centre of this ensemble the experimental community of EPCOT is positioned.

The absolute control of the schema goes beyond the urban planning and the architectural design: Disney’s formula did not envisaged housing property titles for the EPCOT residents. Mannheim, Steve, Walt Disney and the Quest for Community, Ashgate publishing Ltd., 2002, 156.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens, 133.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 134–5.

Idem., 136.

Mannheim, S., Walt Disney and the Quest for Community…, respective Rybczynski, Witold, Tomorrowland, The New Yorker, July 22, 1996, 36, http://​www.​newyorker.​com/​magazine/​1996/​07/​22/​tomorrowland, accessed in September 2013.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 144.

According to the two authors “Celebration was built on a shrewd ‘technonostalgia’ that combines a yearning for a mythical ‘way it used to be’ with a profound admiration for technical progress.” Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 145.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 145.

Idem.

The term is coined by Paul Knox. Vulgaria represents the “the emblematic cultural landscapes of contemporary American suburbia. They are landscapes of bigness and spectacle, characterized by packaged developments, simulated settings, and conspicuous consumption, and they have naturalized an ideology of competitive consumption, moral minimalism, and disengagement from notions of social justice and civil society”—essentially “a conservative utopia of sequestered settings that are provided by the packaged, themed, and fortified subdivisions of private master-planned developments. […]” and “a landscape rich in the symbolic languages of exclusion and entitlement”, “a landscape of casual vulgarity, dominated by a presumed reciprocity between size and social supremacy”, where “affluence is confused with cosmopolitanism and urbanity”. Knox, Paul, Vulgaria: The Re-Enchantment of Suburbia, 33–46, in Opolis, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2005, http://​escholarship.​org/​uc/​item/​5392f4vq, accessed in February 2013, 1, 42.

Knox, Paul, Vulgaria: The Re-Enchantment of Suburbia, 33–46, in Opolis, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2005, 42, http://​escholarship.​org/​uc/​item/​5392f4vq, accessed in February 2013.

Knox, Vulgaria…, 42.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 147.

Kargon, Molella, Invented Edens…, 147.

Rowe suggests the conceptualization of the city as a collage of utopias, heterogeneous and miniature, precisely in order to avoid the installation of a totalitarian vision over it. More in Rowe, C., Koetter, F., Collage City, (1978).

Spânu, Smaranda, Practices of the Built Heritage as Other Space: Conservation and Destruction of the Wooden Churches of Transylvania, Session 9b: Space, Place and Heritage, la Space and Place 4th Global Conference, Oxford, Great Britain, 2013, http://​www.​inter-disciplinary.​net/​critical-issues/​ethos/​space-and-place/​project-archives/​conference-programme-abstracts-and-papers/​session-9b-space-place-and-heritage/​, accessed in September 2014.

Morris imagines a new London that fragmentarily retains traces of industrialization in the form of reconverted factories, with “furnaces without smoke”, isolated in a new built fabric.

Bingaman, Amy, Sanders, Lise, and Zorach, Rebecca, Embodied Utopia. Introduction in Embodied Utopias. Gender, social change, and the modern metropolis, 1–12, Amy Bingaman publishing house, Lise Sanders and Rebecca Zorach, Routledge, London, 2002, 6–7.

Bingaman, Sandres, Zorach, Embodied…, 10.

Bingaman, Sandres, Zorach, Embodied…, 10.

Bingaman, Sandres, Zorach, Embodied…, 11.

Andraos, Amale, Visionary Urbanism and its Agency, 20–31, in zawia#01:Utopia, December 2013, published online: http://​archinect.​com/​features/​article/​95130918/​screen-print-10-zawia-s-utopia, accessed in February 2014.

Andraos, Visionary…, fn.

Andraos, Vizionary…, fn.

Andraos, Visionary…, fn.

Mostly written utopias—Herland, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Woman on the Edge of Time, Marge Piercy—but also materialized, Llano del Rio, Alice Constance Austin, California, 1916—based on the principle of liberating women from domestic oppression, by means of cooperative housekeeping, and a predecessor of the garden-city. Greed, Cara H., Women and Planning: Creating Gendered Realities, Routledge, 2003, 98.

Andraos, Visionary…, fn.

Andraos, Visionary…, fn.

Idem.

Certeau, Michel de, The Practice of Everyday Life, transl. Rendall, Steven, University of California Press, LTD., London, Great Britain, 1984, 98.

Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, apud. Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City, Routledge, 2008, 19.

Certeau, Michel de, The Practice of Everyday Life, transl. Rendall, Steven, University of California Press, LTD., London, Great Britain, 1984, 48.

Certeau, Michel de, Practices of Space, 122–145, in Blonsky I., Marshall, On Signs, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA, 1985, 128.

Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, 48.

Idem.

Certeau’s analysis is based on some of Foucault’s works, Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la Prison (1975), Les Mots et les choses: Une archéologie des sciences humaines (1966), and partially on Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique (1964).

Certeau, Michel de, The Practice of Everyday Life, 49.

Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, apud. Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City, Routledge, 2008, 17.

Foucault, 17.

Zipes, J., Toward a Realisation…, p. XXX.

Idem., p. XXXI.

Idem., p. XXXVIII.

Idem.

Zipes, J., Toward a Realisation…, p. XXXV.

Zipes notes that Bloch deliberately uses this term, aware of the nationalist-socialist connotation especially for the German territory. The philosopher thus demonstrates the potent mobilizing capacity of hope, ideal and of utopia (even if turned negative through their hijacking).

Foucault, M., Of Other Spaces, 17.

When discussing the evolution of utopia, Goodwin considers that the argument of plurality is introduced via postmodernity and inevitably has devastating consequences—as the pathological pluralism that “reduces the critical capacity of utopia and jeopardizes its transformative power”. Goodwin, Barbara, The Philosophy of Utopia, Goodwin, Barbara, ed., Routledge, Great Britain, 2001, 3.

Heritage-isation or heritageification comes from the French term patrimonialisation and defines the “process by which elements of culture and nature become invested, at a certain point in the history of societies, with a quality of heritage worth safeguarding, presented for the benefit of present generations and transmitted to future generations”, and expressed through the granting of the heritage status. Ahmed Skounti, ‘De la patrimonialisation. Comment et quand les choses deviennent-elles des patrimoines?’, Hesperis-Tamuda Journal Vol. XLV, 2010, 19, apud. Spânu, Smaranda, Practices of the built heritage as other space: conservation of the architecturally-homogenous rural settlements of Transylvania, in Acta Technica Napocensis: Civil Engineering & Architecture, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2013.

Spânu, Smaranda, Practices of the built heritage as other space: conservation of the architecturally-homogenous rural settlements of Transylvania, in Acta Technica Napocensis: Civil Engineering & Architecture Vol. 56, No. 3 (2013), Journal homepage: http://​constructii.​utcluj.​ro/​ActaCivilEng, Special Issue: Interferences in architecture and urban planning. Architectural teaching and research. QUESTIONS 2013.