Reservoirs can serve single or multiple purposes, including water supply, flood control, environmental protection, recreation, and hydropower. Reservoirs store and regulate water releases for various demands, such as irrigation water during the dry season or hydropower during peak energy demands. While some reservoirs operate solely for hydropower, others generate energy as byproduct of water supply releases for agricultural, urban and environmental users. However, reservoir operators’ short-term objective often is to maximize hydropower revenue within larger-scale release schedules for other purposes (Dogan
2019). Martin (
1983), Yeh (
1985), Wurbs (
1993), Labadie (
2004), Rani and Moreira (
2010), Ahmad et al. (
2014), Beiranvand and Ashofteh (
2023) review reservoir optimization and compare techniques.
Hydropower with a sizable storage capacity is a dispatchable resource, where water is stored as energy in higher elevation when energy demand is low, and is dispatched later to meet peak demands (Pérez-Díaz and Wilhelmi
2010). Peak energy demands can be seasonal, such as summer demand for long-term operations, or daily peak-hour demands for short-term operations. Hydropower’s lower operating cost (Madani et al.
2014) than most other power sources gives incentive to maximize hydropower generation in a power system with mixed generation sources (Hamlet et al.
2002). Hydropower also can provide operational flexibility by generating power on short notice (Chatterjee et al.
1998; Côté and Leconte
2016) and additional ancillary services, such as peak and frequency regulation, and spinning reserve (Li et al.
2013; Liao et al.
2021). Total electricity demands average less at night and more during daytime. California generates electricity from various sources with most in-State generation from natural gas (California Energy Commission
2018). Nuclear, geothermal, small hydropower provide mostly base load supplies, and thermal (mostly natural gas), large hydropower and imports help meet both peak demands and base load. Although total demand remains substantially unchanged for now, the hourly breakdown of electricity sources has changed significantly since 2013. Natural gas and nuclear generation have been declining, while wind and especially solar generation have been increasing. This is because of California's ambitious clean energy goals called Renewable Portfolio Standard targets that the State wants to achieve 40%, 45%, and 50% of total generation from renewable sources, such as solar, wind, small hydropower, biomass, biogas, and geothermal, by 2024, 2027, and 2030, respectively. Previous targets were 20%, 25% and 33% by 2013, 2016, and 2020, respectively (California Energy Commission
2017). Most of these goals are met by wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) generation. The main limitation of integrating variable wind and solar PV power supplies into power production system is their high intermittency (Margeta and Glasnovic
2011; Chang et al.
2013; Liu et al.
2020). Power supplies from wind and solar fluctuate spatiotemporally depending on climatic variables, mostly wind speed, solar radiation and temperature (François et al.
2016). In an economic equilibrium, supply provided equals demand use. Total supply is the sum ofenergy generation from all sources. The difference between total use and variable supply is net load, and its curve is called a ‘duck curve’ due to its shape (Denholm et al.
2015). With increasing variable supply, especially solar, this shape has notably transformed, lowering net load when solar power production peaks around noon and steeper ramping rates to meet the peak demand in the evening, converting the system from one-daily peak to two-daily peaks. Furthermore, increasing renewable energy supplies are expected to increase volatility in energy systems (Jin et al.
2022). With penetration of large-scale wind and solar PV power, flexible and complementary power sources, such as, hydropower, are needed to maintain power system reliability (Shen et al.
2019; Shan et al.
2020; Xie et al.
2021). Eichman et al. (
2013) showed that 50/50 mix of additional solar and wind installation would provide the highest system-wide capacity factor, where large wind farms provide low cost generation and solar provides more predictable generation.
Higher net load correlates with higher wholesale energy prices. As renewable supplies, especially solar PV, increases, wholesale energy prices decrease. This new price pattern from renewable expansion significantly affects hourly hydropower operations (Chang et al.
2013). Given significant changes in energy price patterns due to expanded solar generation, reevaluation of hydropower reservoir operations, driven by energy prices and constrained by water availability, becomes important for efficient water and energy management. The review of this subject in the literature is rather scant. This paper quantifies effects of solar generation-changed energy price patterns on short-term dispatchable hydropower operations in California.
Given changes in energy price patterns, this study examines best hours to store and release water to generate hydropower and how much, depending on water availability in wet and dry seasons. Hourly short-term hydropower reservoir operations are analyzed before and after large solar penetration into California’s power supply system with a hybrid linear and nonlinear programming hydroeconomic reservoir optimization model (HERO), with an hourly time-step over a seasonal period from 2010 to 2018. Hydropower storage and release schedules are examined, and generation and revenue results are provided. Furthermore, adaptation strategies on reservoir operations are evaluated with solar generation-changed energy price patterns.