Introduction
Scaffolding as a framework
Types of scaffolding
Research on scaffolding in online learning environments
In practice, these constructs translate into three activities: clearly establishing the goal of the activity at the beginning, continuously negotiating and refining the goal, and using support and communication strategies that enable both learner and expert to reach the goal (pp. 19–20).
Methods
Design of the study
Context and participants
Name | Discipline | Years Teaching (K-12) | Years Teaching (Higher Ed.) | Years Teaching (Online) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sarah | Mathematics Education | 6–10 | 6–10 | 1–2 |
Elaina | Educational Technology | 3–5 | 10 + | 10 + |
Cora | Gifted and Talented Education | 10 + | 3–5 | 3–5 |
Sam | English Language Learning | 1–2 | 10 + | 1–2 |
Data sources
Pre-interview survey
Semi-structured interviews
Online course observations
Data analysis
Reliability and validity
Results
Sam’s case description
Conceptualization of scaffolding
We're looking into more, like, visual scaffolding, linguistic types of scaffolding. More like grouping configurations in terms of pairing students up, putting students in groups, for example. And the use of different organizers, like different web organizers that we use in Microsoft Word, for example.
Hard scaffolds come into play during the designing stage of the course and an example is the rubrics that show expectations for assignments and a lesson plan template. Soft scaffolds come about when you have that immediate information that feeds into your decision making when you make it at that moment you are with the students.
Instructor’s process for designing and developing scaffolding
We use the literal concept of a scaffold in a building construction, and then see how the purpose of scaffold is actually, from the beginning, to provide support to a construction. But eventually it's all removed and the building is basically on its own, and how we apply that into a classroom or teaching and learning process, and see how different types of support could be used with students.
Implementation and evaluation of scaffolding
And to me, the challenge is that building rapport with individual students. I find it a little easier in the physical classroom, but it is a little bit challenging for me building that rapport, getting to know a student more individually in the online environment. That, kind of, limits the types of customized scaffold that I can provide in the online environment.
Participant 1/ Sam | Participant 2/Sarah | Participant 3/Elaina | Participant 4/ Cora | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conceptual | Hard | Video presented as complementary to reading materials (provide guidance on how concepts are related) | The instructor provided a template and worksheet for learners to guide an assignment on collecting, analyzing, and visualizing data (provide hints that direct learners to consider new, existing, or alternative resources) | Wiki Assignment that asks learners to consider definition of expertise in the field and review others’ definitions to find relevant themes (relate new concepts to prior knowledge) | Online discussion focused on comparing and applying professional development models; (relate new concepts to prior knowledge / provide guidance on how concepts are related) |
Soft | Audio feedback on assignments (provide guidance on how concepts are related / relate new concepts to prior knowledge) | Instructor provided an announcement to help learners relate statistical concepts like graphing, Y-intercept, and predictions to prior learned mathematics concepts (provide guidance on how concepts are related/ help learners relate new concepts to prior knowledge) | Instructor responds to discussion question responses as a whole and uses Socratic questioning to move it to next level (relate new concepts to prior knowledge) | Providing supplementary resources when students display a misunderstanding (helping learners relate new concepts to prior knowledge / provide hints that direct learners to consider new, existing, or alternative resources) | |
Metacognitive | Hard | Voicethread activity that provides learners overview of how they should be planning for varying levels of student performance levels in their classes; also use the levels to evaluate materials and eventually apply in classroom (promote self-monitoring or self-regulation / facilitate reflections on learning) | Students required to complete a self-reflection assignment about their learning in the class and draw a connection between their learning experiences and their own experiences in teaching (facilitate reflections on learning / promote self-monitoring or self-regulation) | A weekly lessons learned area (wiki or Padlet) since reflection is a very important part of case analysis process (promote self-monitoring or self-regulation/ facilitate reflection on learning) | Use of peer review rooms (groups) (promote self-monitoring or self-regulation) |
Soft | Discussion post response to student(s); asks students to reflect on their learning on a specific topic (facilitate reflections on learning) | Course announcement highlighting learning demonstrated in previous week (make understanding visible / facilitate reflections on learning) | Announcements that summarize learning on a particular case study (make understanding visible) | Prompting students to reflect on their learning within discussions, asking them to share “aha” moments (promote self-monitoring or self-regulation) | |
Procedural | Hard | Video depicting step-by-step process on lesson analysis assignment (provide procedural direction on how to accomplish a task) | Provided a detailed assignment description with breakdown of steps through flip cards, along with a video of K12 learners in action (provide procedural direction on how to accomplish a task) | Video that introduces the structure, flow, and components of the course (provide orientation to learners on how to navigate the online course environment) | Discussion board guidelines with examples (provide direction on how to accomplish a task) |
Soft | Weekly announcement(s) (provide guidelines including expectations for upcoming tasks) | Part of weekly announcements (text and video) incorporates reminders of upcoming tasks and deadlines (provide guidelines including expectations for upcoming tasks) | Announcement that provides reminder of how to accomplish a case analysis (provide direction on how to accomplish a task) | Written feedback that provides tips for being successful and allowing students to resubmit if below a C grade (provide direction on how to accomplish a task) | |
Strategic | Hard | Use of videos to provide instruction and modeling for tasks (provides advice from experts) | The instructor provided probing questions for learners to think about before starting to work on their discussion post (use of probing questions as clues when learners start on a topic) | A walk-through module that shows students how to think through a case, to think about the case analysis process; Provide expert resolution to case analysis following course activities (provide advice from experts) | Provides overview, key points, and probing questions prior to readings; guides learners on approaches that support analysis (Use probing questions as clues when learners start on a topic) |
Soft | Discussion post response to student(s) including Socratic questioning (use of probing questions as clues / suggest alternative methods or procedures) | Provides alternative resources and uses Socratic questioning within course discussions (suggest alternative methods or procedures) | Announcement that provides focus questions for the week’s learning activities (probing questions as clues when learner starts on new case) | Worked example of how to read a research article with pop-up comments embedded in sample article (provide alternative explanation) | |
Motivational | Hard | Note from former student on how to succeed in the class (promote expectancy for success / promote belongingness) | Instructor encouraged learners to work in groups and asked learners to identify their work style to achieve group goals (promote mastery goals) | In overview of course format (case analysis), explains that failure is a natural part of learning, in this case failure to fully understand the case analysis process without practice (promote emotion regulation / promote mastery goals) | Allows learners to choose from among 3 assignment options (provides autonomy / establishes task value) |
Soft | Audio feedback customized for each student based on their individual work (promote expectancy for success / promote mastery goals) | Feedback to students showing encouragement, care, and explaining how to improve work (promote expectancy for success / promote emotion regulation) | Announcement that includes pointers for course success and thoughts about the week’s case analysis in terms of success and room for growing (promote expectancy for success) | Provides multiple opportunities for extra credit as activities evolve in course (establishes task value) |
Determining success of scaffolding practices
Case summary
Sarah’s case description
Conceptualization of scaffolding
I do a lot of things related to relationships, like showing myself as vulnerable but also, like, sharing pictures, kind of trying to get them to feel excited about something, or it might be by trying to connect them. Like, as I said before, like, "Oh, did you see what she wrote? I'm so glad you learned this from this person." Trying to make them feel like they are learning also from each other.
I see it as the things that you do while you are teaching the course, during course implementation. Let's say I've been part of building a course and then teaching it...you are trying to, in the moment, to address those things.
Instructor’s process for designing and developing scaffolding
I think I've been learning about how to teach stuff by teaching and reflecting on what I do, so whatever I know now about the scaffolding, how to provide guidelines so that my students get something out of the course, is based on reflecting on my experiences on how I see that things are productive in terms of the feedback that I get from students or how I feel about doing it...I will pay attention to whatever the students said in the course evaluations.
Implementation and evaluation of scaffolding
The belonging is a big piece of my way of teaching. I think they need to feel that they are part of a group, and I promote, like, as I said before, I try to make comments so that they see the value of being with others.
The other thing that is challenging in online courses, like when I'm doing the in-time feedback or in-time scaffolding, you know, I read what they write, and I have a sense of how they're understanding things, but I might be wrong because it's also through my lenses. So I have biases, and then I don't know those, because if I would know them then I would be perfect, and I'm not. So that is kind of challenging, right?
Determining Success of Scaffolding Practices
When I look at the students' evaluation... So I kind of am getting good feedback, so that is how I know it's going well. I also, whenever I read their posts and they say things like, "Oh, I didn't know about this," or, "I'm excited about this," or, "I had an eye-opening," all of those things to me are, like, small celebrations that something is working. So that is how I know.
Case summary
...learners’ learning journeys are different because they are all different people. I see my role as being the one who emotionally and academically supports them so that they feel they are making progress wherever they are. Successful instructors are those who have an active online presence.
Elaina’s case description
Conceptualization of scaffolding
Scaffolding is meant to be temporary, and it's being applied in the course to achieve a specific learning outcome in the immediate future, something that the instructor has intentionally designed for a specific purpose. General resources are something that learners can take beyond the learning experience and use at their own discretion, not necessarily in ways that the instructor has a specific use for.
...ones that can be implemented as needed... You have to be flexible enough to be able to do this in a way that you're still putting it back on the student, it's kind of like...I don't know if you've heard of the term "reflective toss." But again, it's like this give and take, where you're acknowledging what's being said, but you're at the same time, working to help students shoulder that sense-making process.
Instructor’s process for designing and developing scaffolding
I feel like there's extra pressure to build in these types of preplanned scaffolds, because you don't know [if] other people are going to be able to facilitate the course the way that you envisioned, or what their experience is with doing just-in-time scaffolding. So I think that really can be a challenge.
This is an example of something that I've adjusted. So I shared the "lessons learned" Padlet that I ask students to complete at the end of each case [cased-based learning]. And when I first created the Padlet, I had both... I had a lot of students that pushed back and said, "We don't see the purpose of this. This is just an add-on assignment." So I realize that I knew it was very valuable, because I understand how students learn and work through the process. But I understood that I did not communicate that well to the students.
Implementation and evaluation of scaffolding
I always create an introductory video that I try to walk them through course expectations, and then acclimating them with what's going to be expected. So that's one thing. And then, I always do a check-in video at least halfway through. And then, discussions. I think there's always... I have a certain style, and that's always asking questions in the discussion and prompting learners to think through, or for me to share experiences or resources that connect them. So I would say that those are ones that I always use.
Especially if I see students that are struggling and are really frustrated, I’ll email and say "Hey, it's okay. This takes time." And I try to wrap up the case, too, with some final thoughts, like, "Hey, this is a safe place, so it's okay that...if you don't get it right now."
Determining success of scaffolding practices
For instance, if we look at student work progressing over the semester and you see that improving, I think that's one sign. I think that when students feel more supported, they're more positive about the learning. So I think that that's one way you can check attitudes…but it's not, again, perfect. I'm looking for improvements. If things are staying the same, even with the scaffold, then I would say, "We need to try something else," because this clearly is still not getting us to where we want to be.
Case summary
Cora’s case description
Conceptualization of scaffolding
Hard scaffolds are generally determined during that instructional design phase, the lesson planning process, again, with the content and my students' learning needs in mind and their characteristics in mind. I think about the interaction between my students and the content. And so as I think about that, I think about, as I said earlier, any kind of social-emotional concern that I think might arise based on a topic we're discussing, but definitely the academic side as well. I also have planned hard scaffolds, scaffolds after summative assessment when students did not perform as I had anticipated or expected or wanted. And so re-teaching parts of the content using different scaffolds, pre-planned scaffolds is in order and so I've done that.
Instructor’s process for designing and developing scaffolding
So, I'm choosing high-quality content. I'm choosing content that I believe will be challenging for probably the more advanced students in my courses, but then the scaffolding that I provide are the supports needed for those who may come into the course not knowing as much as others…so, there's closer monitoring involved for these students that I believe will have a bit more challenge reaching my learning goals than others. And in scaffolding, I would provide many, many kinds of supports to them, more structured kinds of learning questions, explaining content in simpler terms, providing the key points beforehand…so, kind of front-loading learning experiences so that I'm sure they're looking for the important things that I want them to notice and to learn.
Implementation and evaluation of scaffolding
I guess the biggest challenge for me is figuring out the best ways to communicate with the students online because I can't be with them face to face all the time. I can create experiences where we are together, but most of our communication, especially from me to them and delivering content, is going to be through Blackboard, through written communication. And so I think that the biggest challenge is trying to make that impersonal platform of Blackboard more personal. And I have incorporated videos lately of myself … so, at least they can hear my voice instead of maybe reading three chapters in the book. I think my difficulties are around communication, my teacher voice, an invitational style, and one that is just not sterile.