1. Introduction

Excerpt

Management theory postulates that executives control subordinates by means of information.¹, ² They obtain information from different sources, process it, make a decision, and inform subordinates about it. The quality and free flow of the information reaching executives about the real situation inside and outside an organization affects their decisions, and ultimately the organization’s response to any changes in the internal and external environment. Receiving appropriate feedback from subordinates about real conditions at the bottom of the corporate hierarchy is crucial for the effectiveness, and ultimately the survival, of an organization. It enables the timely detection of dangerous deviations in the operation of equipment, faulty production, violation of corporate rules, criminal action by employees, and so on. But in reality, feedback from subordinates to superiors is usually distorted because of ill-advised organizational rules, principles and incentives, along with the natural human tendency for people to try and present themselves in a positive light, hiding their mistakes and faults. As we will see, this tendency can have disastrous consequences in the context of critical infrastructure and public health, just as it does in other fields of management. …