1. Introduction

This chapter provides the analytical framework for the book’s major arguments. It begins by laying out the liberal theoretical motivations behind Western post-Cold War policies. It then explains the consequences of policies such as “liberal hegemony” and neoliberal economic prescriptions. It assesses that these policies had unintentional negative consequences both internationally and within liberal democracies themselves. It argues that “liberal universalism” is a failed concept based on an incorrect assumption that non-Western states would liberalize and adopt Western forms of governance. With the rising material capability of non-Western states possessing different identities and sets of interests, policies such as democracy promotion or the continued assumption of the dominance of liberalism as a universal normative framework will increasingly face challenges. Increasingly, the rise of “civilizational states” is manifesting at the forefront of international politics, such as in the cases of Russia and China. Domestic and international backlashes share similar anti-liberal rhetoric. To address these challenges, political pluralism and pragmatic internationalism as an international code of conduct can avoid costly wars such as the ongoing war in Ukraine. Domestically, the preservation of democracy needs to be prioritized to ensure the continued strength and prosperity of the West.