1 Introduction
2 Design and Methodology
2.1 Survey Design
Vector/Variable | Description |
---|---|
Panel A: Participants’ characteristics | |
CRTi | |
GENDERi | Dummy variable that equals one when participant i is female and zero otherwise |
LOTTERY_RISKYi | Amount of money a participant is willing to pay for participation in the risky lottery proposed by Guiso et al. (2008) |
LOTTERY_UNCERTAINi | Amount of money a participant is willing to pay for participation in the uncertain lottery proposed by Guiso et al. (2008) |
RISK_ATTITUDEi | Self-assessment of risk attitude in the financial domain on an 11-point Likert scale (from 0 to 10) based on Dohmen et al. (2011) |
PANAS | |
NEGAFFECTi | Negative affect that is determined as the median value of three items based on a scale from one to five on the German version of the PANAS by Krohne et al. (1996) |
POSAFFECTi | Positive affect that is determined as the median value of three items on a scale from one to five based on the German version of the PANAS by Krohne et al. (1996) |
KNOWLEDGE | |
KNOWLEDGE_STATISTICSi | Self-assessment about statistical knowledge on a 6-point Likert scale (from “1 – very good” to “6 – very poor”, based on the German school grading scale) based on Glaser et al. (2007). For the empirical analysis, inverted values are used so that one indicates very poor statistical knowledge and six very good statistical knowledge |
SCORE_FIN_KNOWi | Financial knowledge determined as sum of two items based on Abreau/Mendes (2012). One item asks participant to name five stocks listed in the German blue-chip index DAX, the other item asks about the authority responsible for complaints about miscounseling in financial advice in Germany. Participants can get five points for each item. One point for every correct stock in the DAX and five points for the correct authority. Hence, the value of SCORE_FIN_KNOWi can range from 0 to 10. A value of 0 means that the participant provided no correct answer. A value of 10 means that the participant answered all questions correctly |
LOCUS_OF_CONTROL | |
EXTLOCUSi | External locus of control that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on Kovaleva et al. (2012) |
INTLOCUSi | Internal locus of control that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on Kovaleva et al. (2012) |
PERSONALITY | |
AGREEABLENESSi | Agreeableness that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on the BFI-10 of Rammstedt et al. (2012) |
CONSCIENTIOUSNESSi | Conscientiousness that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on the BFI-10 of Rammstedt et al. (2012) |
EXTRAVERTi | Extraversion that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on the BFI-10 of Rammstedt et al. (2012) |
NEUROTICISMi | Neuroticism that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on the BFI-10 of Rammstedt et al. (2012) |
OPENNESSi | Openness that is determined as the median value of two items on a scale from one to five based on the BFI-10 of Rammstedt et al. (2012) |
LIFE_ORIENTATION | |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_OPTIMISMi | Optimism that is determined as the sum of three items on a scale from one to five based on the LOT-R of Glaesmer et al. (2008) |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_PESSIMISMi | Pessimism that is determined as the sum of three items on a scale from one to five based on the LOT-R of Glaesmer et al. (2008) |
FINANCIAL_ADVICE | |
PERSONAL_FINANCIAL_ADVICEi | Received personal financial advice (i.e. from a human financial advisor) in the last two years; dummy variable that equals one when participants state that they received personal financial advice in the last two years and zero otherwise |
ROBO_FINANCIAL_ADVICEi | Received financial advice from a robo-advisor in the last two years; dummy variable that equals one when participants state that they received financial advice from a robo-advisor in the last two years and zero otherwise |
EXPERIENCE_STOCKS | |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKETi | Experience in the stock market; dummy variable that equals one when participants state that they already made transactions in the stock market and zero otherwise |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET_SATISFIEDi | Satisfactory results in the stock market that are determined by the answer to the question “Would you say that your recent stock market transactions had satisfactory results?” on a scale from one (no, not at all) to five (yes, completely); enters the regression analysis as an interaction term EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKETi*EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET_SATISFIEDi |
TRUST | |
CONFIDENCEi | |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_GENERALi | |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_FINANCIALi | Trust in financial authorities is a scale that ranges from one (no trust at all) to four (high trust) |
TRUST_COURTSi | |
TRUST_FINANCIAL_SERVICE_PROVIDERSi | |
TRUST_FRIENDS_GENERALi | |
TRUST_FRIENDS_MONETORYi | |
TRUST_FRIENDS_NON-MONETORYi | |
TRUST_OTHER_PEOPLEi | |
TRUST_POLICEi | |
TRUST_PRESSi | |
TRUST_STIFTUNG_WARENTESTi | Trust in the German consumer organization “Stiftung Warentest” is a scale that ranges from one (no trust at all) to four (high trust) |
Panel B: Investment Decisions | |
AMOUNT_INVESTED_IN_ STOCKS_BONDS_FUNDSi | The amount of money invested in stocks, bonds, and funds covering stocks and bonds |
INVEST_WITH_ROBOi | Investment with robo-advisor; dummy variable that equals one when participants state that they are willing to invest with the robo-advisor and zero otherwise |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO_AMOUNTi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest with the robo-advisor; conditional on INVEST_WITH_ROBO equaling one |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO_STOCK_RATIOi | Stock ratio that a participant selects for the investment with the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNTi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in stocks, bonds, and funds covering stocks and bonds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BALANCED MUTUAL FUNDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in balanced mutual funds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BOND INDEX FUNDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in bond index funds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BOND MUTUAL FUNDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in bond mutual funds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ INDIVIDUAL BONDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in individual bonds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ INDIVIDUAL STOCKSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in individual stocks without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ STOCK INDEX FUNDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in stock index funds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ STOCK MUTUAL FUNDSi | Amount of money a participant is willing to invest in stock mutual funds without the robo-advisor |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_STOCK_RATIOi | Stock ratio that a participant selects for the investments in stocks, bonds, and funds covering stocks and bonds without the robo-advisor |
SOLELY_USING_ROBOi | Dummy variable that equals one when participants state that they are willing to invest solely with the robo-advisor and zero otherwise |
Mean | Median | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panel A: Participants’ characteristics | |||||
CRT | 3.65 | 4.00 | 1.63 | .00 | 6.00 |
GENDER | .51 | .00 | 1.00 | ||
LOTTERY_RISKY | 453.52 | 5.00 | 863.29 | .00 | 4,000.00 |
LOTTERY_UNCERTAIN | 362.45 | 2.00 | 754.38 | .00 | 3,250.00 |
RISK_ATTITUDE | 4.60 | 4.00 | 2.11 | .00 | 10.00 |
PANAS | |||||
NEGAFFECT | 1.60 | 1.00 | .89 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
POSAFFECT | 3.06 | 3.00 | .96 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
KNOWLEDGE | |||||
KNOWLEDGE_STATISTICS | 4.25 | 4.00 | .94 | 1.00 | 6.00 |
SCORE_FIN_KNOW | 3.70 | 4.00 | 2.46 | .00 | 10.00 |
LOCUS_OF_CONTROL | |||||
EXTLOCUS | 2.18 | 2.00 | .66 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
INTLOCUS | 4.20 | 4.00 | .56 | 2.50 | 5.00 |
PERSONALITY | |||||
AGREEABLENESS | 3.06 | 3.00 | .83 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS | 3.55 | 3.50 | .74 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
EXTRAVERT | 3.37 | 3.50 | .94 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
NEUROTICISM | 2.89 | 3.00 | .96 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
OPENNESS | 3.30 | 3.50 | 1.03 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION | |||||
LIFE_ORIENTATION_OPTIMISM | 11.13 | 11.00 | 2.28 | 5.00 | 15.00 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_PESSIMISM | 7.37 | 7.00 | 2.17 | 3.00 | 15.00 |
FINANCIAL_ADVICE | |||||
PERSONAL_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .26 | .00 | 1.00 | ||
ROBO_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .02 | .00 | 1.00 | ||
EXPERIENCE_STOCKS | |||||
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET | .19 | .00 | 1.00 | ||
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET_SATISFIED | 3.86 | 4.00 | .99 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
TRUST | |||||
CONFIDENCE | 2.07 | 1.00 | 1.38 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_GENERAL | 2.67 | 3.00 | .90 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_FINANCIAL | 3.54 | 3.00 | 1.32 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_COURTS | 3.08 | 3.00 | .95 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_FINANCIAL_SERVICE_PROVIDERS | 2.51 | 2.00 | .89 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_GENERAL | 3.71 | 4.00 | .51 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_MONETORY | 3.12 | 3.00 | .97 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_NON-MONETORY | 3.24 | 3.00 | .97 | 1.00 | 5.00 |
TRUST_OTHER_PEOPLE | .27 | .00 | 1.00 | ||
TRUST_POLICE | 2.89 | 3.00 | .74 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_PRESS | 2.48 | 2.00 | .96 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
TRUST_STIFTUNG_WARENTEST | 2.74 | 3.00 | .98 | 1.00 | 4.00 |
Panel B: Investment Decision | |||||
AMOUNT_INVESTED_IN_ STOCKS_BONDS_FUNDS | 591.36 | 600 | 355.60 | 0 | 1,000 |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO | .53 | 0 | 1 | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT | 314.65 | 250 | 299.82 | .00 | 1,000 |
2.2 Empirical Analysis
3 Results
3.1 Characteristics and Asset Allocation of Robo-users vs. Robo-avoiders
robo-users (1) | robo-avoiders (2) | p-value (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
GENDER | .50 (.50) | .52 (.50) | .777 |
RISK_ATTITUDE | 4.89 (1.98) | 4.28 (2.20) | .030 |
LOTTERY_RISKY | 394.46 (796.65) | 519.70 (931.63) | .274 |
LOTTERY_UNCERTAIN | 318.05 (670.26) | 412.18 (839.10) | .347 |
POSAFFECT | 3.17 (.91) | 2.95 (1.01) | .073 |
NEGAFFECT | 1.52 (.79) | 1.68 (.98) | .188 |
CRT | 3.67 (1.55) | 3.62 (1.74) | .823 |
SCORE_FIN_KNOW | 3.81 (2.65) | 3.58 (2.22) | .472 |
KNOWLEDGE_STATISTICS | 4.33 (.98) | 4.17 (.88) | .188 |
INTLOCUS | 4.19 (.57) | 4.20 (.56) | .901 |
EXTLOCUS | 2.14 (.66) | 2.22 (.67) | .418 |
AGREEABLENESS | 3.07 (.80) | 3.06 (.86) | .949 |
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS | 3.56 (.72) | 3.54 (.76) | .832 |
EXTRAVERT | 3.49 (.88) | 3.23 (1.01) | .035 |
NEUROTICISM | 2.88 (.96) | 2.91 (.97) | .825 |
OPENNESS | 3.31 (1.00) | 3.30 (1.06) | .946 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_OPTIMISM | 11.44 (2.24) | 10.79 (2.30) | .030 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_PESSIMISM | 7.10 (2.10) | 7.67 (2.22) | .048 |
PERSONAL_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .23 (.42) | .29 (.45) | .339 |
ROBO_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .02 (.16) | .02 (.13) | .739 |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET | .18 (.39) | .19 (.40) | .811 |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET_SATISFIED | 4.05 (.79) | 3.67 (1.15) | .911 |
CONFIDENCE | 2.14 (1.44) | 2.00 (1.30) | .444 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_GENERAL | 2.59 (.84) | 2.75 (.95) | .171 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_FINANCIAL | 3.45 (1.26) | 3.65 (1.38) | .240 |
TRUST_COURTS | 3.04 (.083) | 3.12 (1.08) | .534 |
TRUST_FINANCIAL_SERVICE_PROVIDERS | 2.55 (.86) | 2.46 (.93) | .444 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_GENERAL | 3.74 (.53) | 3.69 (.48) | .159 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_MONETORY | 3.14 (.96) | 3.10 (.97) | .764 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_NON-MONETORY | 3.21 (.97) | 3.28 (.96) | .627 |
TRUST_OTHER_PEOPLE | .28 (.45) | .26 (.44) | .771 |
TRUST_POLICE | 2.93 (.74) | 2.84 (.75) | .403 |
TRUST_PRESS | 2.54 (.90) | 2.41 (1.02) | .312 |
TRUST_STIFTUNG_WARENTEST | 2.73 (.87) | 2.75 (1.10) | .861 |
N | 122 | 109 |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO (1) | |
---|---|
GENDER | .14 |
RISK_ATTITUDE | .26** |
LN(LOTTERY_RISKY) | -.12 |
LN(LOTTERY_UNCERTAIN) | .14 |
CRT | .05 |
PANAS | ns |
KNOWLEDGE | ns |
INTLOCUS | -1.03** |
EXTLOCUS | -.02 |
PERSONALITY | ns |
LIFE_ORIENTATION | ns |
FINANCIAL_ADVICE | ns |
EXPERIENCE_STOCKS | ns |
TRUST | ns |
\({\beta }_{0}\) | .71 |
Cragg & Uhler’s Pseudo-R2 | .21 |
Percentage of correct estimates | 68.4 |
robo-users (1) | robo-avoiders (2) | p-value (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
AMOUNT_INVESTED_IN_ STOCKS_BONDS_FUNDS | 773.61 (.242.57) | 387.39 (351.95) | .000 |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO_AMOUNT | 523.93 (242.64) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT | 249.67 (226.46) | 387.39 (351.95) | .000 |
N | 122 | 109 |
3.2 Univariate Differences Between Robo-only- and Robo-plus-investors
robo-only-investors (1) | robo-plus-investors (2) | p-value (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
AMOUNT_INVESTED_IN_ STOCKS_BONDS_FUNDS | 631.75 (303.47) | 842.80 (169.63) | .000 |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO_AMOUNT | 631.75 (303.47) | 471.34 (187.25) | .000 |
INVEST_WITH_ROBO_STOCK_RATIO | 51.03 (21.00) | 63.29 (19.79) | .002 |
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BOND INDEX FUNDS | 25.12 (62.89) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BOND MUTUAL FUNDS | 19.94 (51.77) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ INDIVIDUAL BONDS | 32.93 (71.24) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ STOCK INDEX FUNDS | 97.07 (147.19) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ STOCK MUTUAL FUNDS | 60.61 (111.46) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ INDIVIDUAL STOCKS | 87.38 (127.98) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_STOCK_RATIO | 74.36 (32.72) | ||
INVEST_WITHOUT_ROBO_AMOUNT_ BALANCED MUTUAL FUNDS | 48.41 (125.10) | ||
N | 40 | 82 |
robo-only-investors (1) | robo-plus-investors (2) | p-value (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
GENDER | .49 (.51) | .51 (.50) | .799 |
RISK_ATTITUDE | 4.58 (1.97) | 5.04 (1.98) | .229 |
LOTTERY_RISKY | 278.83 (631.88) | 449.45 (862.22) | .222 |
LOTTERY_UNCERTAIN | 275.19 (633.34) | 338.44 (689.98) | .630 |
POSAFFECT | 2.95 (.93) | 3.28 (.88) | .058 |
NEGAFFECT | 1.35 (.62) | 1.61 (.86) | .060 |
CRT | 3.60 (1.78) | 3.71 (1.43) | .740 |
SCORE_FIN_KNOW | 3.03 (1.76) | 4.20 (2.93) | .007 |
KNOWLEDGE_STATISTICS | 4.58 (.78) | 4.21 (1.05) | .032 |
INTLOCUS | 4.23 (.53) | 4.18 (.59) | .663 |
EXTLOCUS | 2.09 (.72) | 2.17 (.63) | .503 |
AGREEABLENESS | 3.10 (.80) | 3.05 (.81) | .429 |
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS | 3.50 (.68) | 3.59 (.74) | .631 |
EXTRAVERT | 3.44 (.88) | 3.52 (.87) | .527 |
NEUROTICISM | 2.78 (1.08) | 2.93 (.89) | .736 |
OPENNESS | 3.23 (1.10) | 3.35 (.95) | .544 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_OPTIMISM | 11.55 (2.26) | 11.39 (2.24) | .713 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_PESSIMISM | 7.38 (2.39) | 6.96 (1.95) | .312 |
PERSONAL_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .15 (.36) | .27 (.45) | .112 |
ROBO_FINANCIAL_ADVICE | .00 (.00) | .04 (.19) | .083 |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET | .05 (.22) | .24 (.43) | .001 |
EXPERIENCE_STOCK_MARKET_SATISFIED | 4.00 (.00) | 4.05 (.83) | .934 |
CONFIDENCE | 1.88 (1.28) | 2.27 (1.50) | .137 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_GENERAL | 2.73 (.91) | 2.52 (.80) | .238 |
TRUST_AUTHORITIES_FINANCIAL | 3.45 (1.30) | 3.44 (1.25) | .982 |
TRUST_COURTS | 3.13 (.88) | 3.00 (.80) | .436 |
TRUST_FINANCIAL_SERVICE_PROVIDERS | 2.70 (1.11) | 2.48 (.71) | .249 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_GENERAL | 3.73 (.51) | 3.74 (.54) | .853 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_MONETORY | 3.00 (1.15) | 3.21 (.86) | .317 |
TRUST_FRIENDS_NON-MONETORY | 3.33 (1.02) | 3.16 (.95) | .377 |
TRUST_OTHER_PEOPLE | .26 (.45) | .29 (.46) | .785 |
TRUST_POLICE | 2.83 (.75) | 2.98 (.74) | .293 |
TRUST_PRESS | 2.38 (.84) | 2.62 (.92) | .156 |
TRUST_STIFTUNG_WARENTEST | 2.70 (.88) | 2.74 (.87) | .795 |
N | 40 | 82 |
3.3 Multivariate Results
robo-only-investors (1) | robo-plus-investors (2) | |
---|---|---|
GENDER | 1.04 | .94 |
RISK_ATTITUDE | 1.27 | 1.38*** |
LOTTERY_RISKY | 1.00 | 1.00 |
LOTTERY_UNCERTAIN | 1.00 | 1.00 |
CRT | 1.05 | 1.12 |
AFFECT | ns | ns |
SCORE_FIN_KNOW | .97 | 1.07 |
KNOWLEDGE_STATISTICS | 2.77*** | 1.21 |
INTLOCUS | .30 | .36** |
EXTLOCUS | .79 | 1.17 |
PERSONALITY | ns | ns |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_OPTIMISM | 1.45* | .93 |
LIFE_ORIENTATION_PESSIMISM | 1.16 | .79 |
FINANCIAL_ADVICE | ns | ns |
EXPERIENCE_STOCKS | ns | ns |
TRUST | ns | ns |
\({\beta }_{0}\)(not exponential) | -1.18 | -.63 |
Cragg & Uhler’s Pseudo-R2 | .402 | .402 |