Introduction
Locally protected forests/woodlands are essential for biodiversity conservation on the African continent (Sheridan
2009; Kossi et al.
2021). The 1997 UNESCO programme on sacred sites (UNESCO
2006) spurred research on locally protected biological areas and their inter-linkages with heritage and biodiversity (Bhagwat et al.
2005; Ormsby and Bhagwat
2010a; Verschuuren et al.
2010; Ormsby and Ismail
2015). These places can range from individual trees (Dafni
2006) to large-scale forest/woodland areas (see Carpenter
2006; Kokou et al.
2008; Baker et al.
2009; Sadowski
2012).
Though the protection of forests/woodlands is a common practice in the African continent (Kokou et al.
2008; Sheridan and Nyamweru
2008; Sheridan
2009; Kibet
2011; Kossi et al.
2021), they remain poorly documented on national and regional levels. The role of customary protection of landscape patches for biodiversity conservation is underappreciated on the continent (see discussion in McCann
1999; Fairhead and Leach
1996,
2003; Ekblom et al.
2019). The traditional systems of authority and customary rights are recognised in several national legislations in Africa, however formal procedures are not always adapted to accommodate customary land and resource rights. Decentralisation policies and new land laws across sub-Saharan Africa (Barrow et al.
2016) offer legal protection to locally protected old-growth forests, and woodlands. For instance, in Benin, biocultural heritage areas are protected through national legislation. Since 2012, more than 2000 areas have been listed, covering a total of 18 360 ha (hectares) and representing a wide diversity of heritage practices (Juhé-Beaulaton
2008; Kraus
2012; Alohou et al.
2016; Bello-Bravo
2020). In Kenya, the recognition of community rights opened to formalise locally protected areas (Adam
2012). Positive examples are the Karima Forest (Adam
2012) and the process of the UNESCO listing of the Kaya forests (Githitho
2003,
2016). In southern and eastern Africa, some community associations have also organised to proclaim sacred natural sites as protected (Bakulumpagi
2021).
In Mozambique, community practices of forest/woodland protection are recognised but have been given limited attention nationwide (see however Virtanen
2002; Izidine et al.
2008; Simbine
2020). Community protection of forest areas in Mozambique was first reported by the ethnographer Junod (
1927, Vol. II, pp. 376–84). Most of these areas are connected to burial places or settlements associated with village or lineage founders. They are protected through the authority of traditional leaders who also monitor and allocate customary resource and land rights in rural areas in Mozambique (Buur and Kyed
2005; Obario
2010). Logging licensing and other land concessions of these attractive old-growth forest areas conflict with local practices of protection (Nhantumbo and Macqueen
2003; Schafer and Bell
2010; Hervey
2012).The lack of monitoring of the logging industry opens possibilities for large-scale illegal logging carried out in parallel and aided by licensed logging activities (Del Gatto
2003; Hervey
2012; Falcão et al.
2019).
This study focuses on addressing the following two questions: (1) what is the conservation status of locally protected forests in Inhambane Province, Mozambique, and (2) what are the main threats to these forests? In this paper, we discuss the status of locally protected forests/woodlands and their main threats in the Inhambane Province, Southern Mozambique, region which has not previously been mapped. The paper is based on fieldwork and data collection from 11 districts of Inhambane. Based on the results from field conversations and a stakeholder workshop we present the challenges local leaders face to protect forests/woodlands areas that are local heritage sites and discuss potential avenues for increased protection in the Inhambane and Mozambique context.
Discussion
The heritage sites being described in this paper are often characterised in the literature as sacred sites, sacred forests, sacred places and other allied terminologies (cf. Blain and Wallis
2004; Ormsby and Bhagwat
2010a; Carmichael et al.
2013). Here, we avoided the use of the term ‘sacred’. Even though this term can have strength legally, it may lead to neglect of forests which are protected through customary rules but which may not be circumscribed by practices typically associated with the ‘sacred’ (cf. Dafni
2006; Griffin
1995; Avtzis et al.
2018). Another problematic terminology is the reference to ‘traditional’. This also distracts attention from the intergenerational process and political negotiation which lies behind the customary protection of forests (Junsongduang et al.
2013; Mgaya
2020). Lastly, in our case, the denominator ‘forest’ can also be misleading as protected areas can range from areas of closed forest cover to woodland to scrubland – all serving important biological functions and contributing to landscape patchiness (see, for instance, Bossart and Antwi
2016; Hounkpati et al.
2022). Thus, for our purposes and discussion, we prefer a wider definition and the more neutral term: locally protected forests/woodlands that are connected to what we refer to as biocultural heritage (Maffi
2005; Pretty et al.
2009; Davidson-Hunt et al.
2012; Chen et al.
2015; Swiderska et al.
2018; Poole
2018; Ekblomet al.
2019).
Virtanen’s study in Chôa Highlands of central Mozambique (Manica Province) reports the existence of locally protected forests, which, in contrast to non-protected forests have greater species diversity, a more complex forest structure, and a higher incidence of fire-sensitive species (Virtanen
2002). Closer to the Zimbabwe border (the Chicuei area), a 200-ha protected forest has been reported with sites used for rainmaking, where the tree diversity is high in comparison to other protected areas (Macateco
2015). Another example is the protected forest around Mount Mabu in the Zambezia Province. The area was proclaimed a biodiversity hotspot by biologists after 2005, who stressed the need to upgrade the conservation status (Timberlake et al.
2012; Bayliss et al.
2014). Since the area was promoted as a wilderness area, these researchers gave less attention to Mount Mabu as a locally protected forest and cultural landscape (Matusse
2020).
In the Gaza province, there are protected forests/woodland areas which are formally recognised and linked to particular family lineages. One is Chilaulene (0.6 ha), located south of Xai-Xai Town, which is an open savannah and marshland with single shrubs and trees; another example is the Zongoene forest (7 ha), which is located south of Chilaulene (Simbine
2020). The Chirindzene forest (63.4 ha), also in the Xai-Xai area, is larger and was formally classified as a Forest Reserve in 1974. The forest is associated with the Chirindza lineage, and ceremonies are conducted here by the traditional leader. Chirindzene is currently formally managed by an association of 60 members (Simbine
2020).
In the case of Inhambane Province, and as discussed here, and the type and number of official heritage sites in the database held by the Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism and the results from the mapping activities, the protected areas discussed here are poorly known by the governmental authorities responsible for cultural heritage as well as those managing the forestry sector. When technicians from the cultural division at the provincial and district level were asked about local heritage sites, they associate it with places used to perform rainmaking ceremonies. Most officials know that these areas exist in the local communities, but they do not know their location or connection to the forested areas.
Elsewhere on the continent, there is a growing awareness of the potential for customary practices and heritage sites to promote forest conservation (Sheridan and Nyamweru
2008). The Mijkenda Kaya forests in Kenya are a positive example of stewardship based on local practices of protection and heritage values where local communities and authorities have collaborated to proclaim the area as a World Heritage Site (Githitho
2016). The organisation around the Chirindza forest could potentially be replicated in the context of Inhambane Province and Mozambique in general. It is essential that such a process is led by community representatives and follows local protocols. The negative effects of lack of local anchoring are seen in the example of the Licuáti forest (19 100 ha), which before being gazetted, was under the local protection of the Santaca traditional leader and when customary laws were followed. After being proclaimed as a forest reserve in 1943 to protect the mature trees of pod mahogany (
Afzelia quanzensis) it was managed by the district authorities of Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, when the forest is under heavy illegal extraction of both licensed and illegal charcoal production (Izidine
2003). The Santaca family have made attempts to strengthen customary protection anew but it remains a challenging process (Izidine et al.
2008). Similarly, a formal listing of biocultural heritage forests at the moment would risk putting them under the authority of the state departments and their provincial and district offices this might alienate traditional leaders and fragment local system of heritage protection if not carefully thought through.
Another aspect which is clear from the interviews and field visits in this study is that the protection of biocultural heritage forests must be a multigenerational and multigendered process. Traditional leaders for them to function in their role must have a high degree of authorisation from community members. In practice, this means that even though secret or exclusive, the activities taking place inside the forest are of concern to the whole village. In the past, visits to heritage places in the protected forests would be restricted to the representatives of the ruling lineage and the elders of the community. In some cases, even the entry into the forests was restricted. The exclusion of youth from such ceremonies or experience of forest areas may also be a contributing factor to customary rules of protection being less respected among the youth. A more inclusive strategy would perhaps sensitise youths to the forests and their history as part of their identity.
Of relevance to the discussion here is also the legislation and procedure around concessions and logging licensing. The procedural process stands in conflict with customary rights and local protection. Logging companies can apply for either short, one year licences or longer period licenses. In both cases a forest management plan and prior consultancy with affected communities is required. Land titles or concessions are applied for through the SPGC (Serviços Provincial de Geografia e Cadastro – Provincial Mapping and Land Registry Service). Areas up to 1000 ha can be approved by the provincial governor. Larger area concessions are granted through the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development or the Council of Ministers (Hanlon
2004). Though the application process requires consultation and approval of communities with customary rights, consultations are not always carried out, and there is a lack of follow-up (Nhantumbo and Macqueen
2003; Hanlon
2004; Sitoe and Guedes
2015; Macqueen and Falcão
2017). An FAO-funded assessment in 2016 based on interviews with responsible technicians suggests that legislation and procedures are unclear and that there is no little community consultancy when issuing licences or concessions (Profor
2016). The Forestry and Wildlife Law (Law 10/1999 and its amendment in 2002, which was implemented in 2005) stipulates that resource extraction concessions or conservation areas must pay 20% of revenues to community organisations. To claim money, communities must form associations with a formal representational structure and have a bank account, requirements that are difficult to meet in rural areas. There is still a lack of clarity on the organisation required to claim such funds and how to claim funds (Hervey
2012; Sitoe and Guedes
2015).
In addition, the forest industry in Mozambique is riddled with a high percentage of clandestine logging. In 2003, convert logging was estimated to account for 50–70% of the total industry (Del Gatto
2003) and clandestine logging has increased in volume since (EIA
2013; Club of Mozambique
2022). The Provincial Services of Forestry and Wildlife (SPFFB), responsible for monitoring licenses clearly does not have enough staffing and resources to monitor logging activities (Ribeiro
2009; Hervey
2012; Macqueen and Falcão
2017). Despite ongoing efforts to improve the situation, the SPFFB and authorities are still widely understaffed (Profor
2016; Macqueen and Falcão
2017; Club of Mozambique
2022). Local leaders have been experiencing increasing pressure from legal and illegal logging. As governmental or provincial authorities grant concessions and licenses, local leaders struggle to resist such interventions, and district-level authorities who may be better informed are not probed to object to higher authorities. There seems to be a consensus, at least among the traditional leaders who participated in the workshop, that some degree of formalisation of their authority as forest guardians is needed with the pressure of licensed and illegal logging, and this could be a better step to support the SPFFB in monitoring logging activities and implementation of the forest management plan.
Although Mozambique is known as progressive when it comes to legislation (Shannon et al.
2018; Monjane
2023), among them the Land Law (Law 19/1997), the Environmental Law (Law 20/97) and the Conservation Law (Law 16/2014), the current land law and its procedures have long been criticised for its lack of procedural clarity (Nhantumbo and Macqueen
2003; Schafer and Bell
2010; Hervey
2012). Some areas discussed here could be protected through the Cultural Heritage Law (Law 10/88 of December 22, 1988) as a cultural monument or through the Conservation Law under the category ‘cultural and natural monument’ (Sal and Caldeira Advocados
2014). However, until now, old-growth forests outside of formally gazetted conservation areas do not have a conservation status, and no locally protected forests have been listed as monuments in Inhambane.
In Mozambique, customary rights over the land are recognised, but formally, all land belongs to the state, and land and resource legislation promotes forest and resource industry (Hanlon
2004; Buur and Kyed
2005). With the 1997 land law and linked legislation, community associations may obtain formal land rights (known as DUAT: Direito de Uso e Aproveitamento da Terra) though the process of acquiring DUAT is complicated (Norfolk
2004; Wit and Norfolk
2010; Hervey
2012; Cabral and Norfolk
2016). By 2009, only 229 community land claims had been licensed, with 74 cases pending (Wit and Norfolk
2010). To facilitate community-based conservation projects, ‘Community Conservation Areas’ (CCA) were recognised as legal entities, however as with DUATs, the process of registration is a lengthy bureaucratic process; until 2019, no single community organisation had applied to be registered (Matusse
2019) thus struggling to be recognised as legal entities (Virtanen
2005). There is an acute need to develop transparent procedures for applications of DUAT and legalise community organisations as owners of conservation areas in Mozambique. The workshop organised in April 2023 is the first step towards such an initiative, and it allowed traditional leaders to share and exchange experience.
Further studies are recommended on the biological diversity of these forest patches and of the longer-term history of these forests/woodland areas. In addition, similar studies should be carried out in other provinces in Mozambique. There also need to be concentrated efforts to ensure that existing laws and procedures during concessions and logging licences are followed, and continuous monitoring that procedures are followed as specified in applications. The continued existence of locally protected forests requires cross-sectoral work and collaboration that encompasses the entities that deal with forests, heritage and conservation. Separate approaches to forests lead to a fragmented institutional knowledge about the existence of forests with cultural dimension. When forests that have cultural dimension are catalogued, the forestry sector is not informed and when licenses are issued, the provincial directorate of culture and tourism is unaware. This situation endangers the continued existence of the forests and the local conservation system.
Conclusions
In this study we identified and confirmed the existence of heritage sites being used and managed by local communities. These heritage sites included forests patches, old settlements, burial grounds, caves and springs. We focused in forests/woodlands and in three case studies to show that locally protected forests as described by Junod in 1927 still exist in Inhambane and local leaders are the main custodians in the management of these cultural landscapes.
The paper highlighted that the continuous existence of locally protected forest patches must build on local understanding of forests as heritage site or cultural landscapes. The lack of recognition of these sites on district and government level results in the lack of recognition of cultural value of this type of forests and lack of legal support from the governmental authorities to help custodians enforce customary laws. Local leaders, who are the main authorities responsible for enforcing customary rules, reported different levels of challenges. The presence of licensed and illegal logging is a severe problem, resulting in intergenerational conflicts and challenging the continuous existence of these forests. Therefore, any strategy to strengthen forest protection must involve the youth. Additionally, we have argued that local leaders need genuine legal support. This support is not solely intended to keep local heritage alive, but also serves an essential function in conserving biodiversity in these forests.
Neglecting to strengthen the local systems of governing these forests or eroding them by imposing state control without local anchoring will mean, in the long run the disappearance of these heritage forests in Inhambane Province. Thus, further research should focus on analysing the biodiversity of these cultural landscapes and framing different ways of seeing forest patches conservation. Such endeavours must be informed by a holistic philosophy that builds on local understanding and practices and which promotes formal ownership and control of these forest areas from the local community.
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