1 Introduction
2 Human Capital as a determinant of inequality in South Africa
3 An alternative approach to measuring HC
4 Method
4.1 Data and sample
4.2 Analytical approach
4.2.1 Conceptual measurement model and variables
Variables representing the reflective indicators for estimating HCL. | Variables employed in the analysis of the distribution of HC |
---|---|
Education (
edu
) (Categorical)
|
Gender (Dummy)
|
(1) Primary or less; (2) Incomplete secondary; 3. Matric**; 4. Some tertiary; 5. Bachelor or higher | 1. Male; 0. Other |
Self-perceived health status (
health
) (Categorical)
|
Race (Categorical)
|
(1) Poor; (2) Fair; (3) Good; (4) Very good; 5. Excellent | (1) African; (2) Coloured; (3) Asian/Indian; 4. White |
School quintile*** (
schoolquin
) (Categorical)
|
Geographical area (Dummy)
|
(1) No-fee school; (2) No-fee school; 3. No-fee school; 4. Low-fee school; 5. Fee charging schools (private & public) | 1. Urban; 0. Other |
Mother’s Schooling (
fthedu
) Categorical)
|
Individual monthly labour income
|
(1) Primary or less; (2) Secondary; (3) Matric; 4. Tertiary | Continuous variable (Min: 16; Max: 189 000) |
Father’s Schooling (
mthedu
) (Categorical)
|
Variable for estimating HC
E
|
1.Primary or less; 2. Secondary; 3. Matric; 4. Tertiary | Highest years of schooling attainment (Min: 0; Max: 18)* |
Variable | Observations and descriptive statistics (Post-stratified weights applied) | Estimated partial regression coefficients*. R2 = 0.4471 | |
---|---|---|---|
Y (individual monthly labour income) | Obs 5 321 615; Mean 9 370.77; Std dev 14 745.83 | ||
logY (log labour income per month) | Obs 5 321 615 Mean 8.434; Std dev 1.226 |
Dependant variable
| |
Education attainment
|
5 321 615
|
Coefficients
|
Std. error
|
1 Primary or less | 9.93% Std error (0.0082) | Reference group | |
2 Secondary | 34.14% Std error (0.0148) | 0.30** | 0.00 |
3 Matric | 22.01% Std error (0.0135) | 0.67** | 0.00 |
4Some tertiary | 22.73% Std error (0.0137) | 1.32** | 0.00 |
5 Bachelor degree or more | 11.19% Std error (0.0087) | 1.98** | 0.00 |
Self-perceived health status
|
5 321 615
| ||
1 Poor | 1.78% Std error (0.0041) | Reference group | |
2 Fair | 6.23% Std error (0.0077) | -0.06 | 0.74 |
3 Good | 24.17% Std error (0.0131) | 0.09 | 0.55 |
4 Very good | 32.81% Std error (0.0146) | 0.04 | 0.76 |
5 Excellent | 35.01% Std error (0.0151) | 0.12 | 0.43 |
School quintile
|
5 321 615
| ||
1 No-fee school | 24.59% Std error (0.014) | Reference group | |
2 No-fee school | 20.26% Std error (0.0119) | -0.01 | 0.93 |
3 No-fee school | 26.16% Std error (0.0135) | -0.03 | 0.72 |
4 Low-fee School | 10.94% Std error (0.0098) | 0.11 | 0.43 |
5 Fee charging school (private and public) | 18.05% Std error (0.0123) | 0.16 | 0.23 |
Mothers education attainment
|
5 321 615
| ||
1 Primary or less | 57.16% Std error (0.0156) | Reference group | |
2 Secondary | 21.70% Std error (0.0126) | 0.07 | 0.43 |
3 Matric | 11.11% Std error (0.0105) | -0.04 | 0.82 |
4 Tertiary | 10.03% Std error (0.0101) | 0.13 | 0.34 |
Fathers education attainment
|
5 321 615
| ||
1 Primary or less | 54.22% Std error (0.0158) | Reference group | |
2 Secondary | 23.31% Std error (0.0136) | 0.21*** | 0.012 |
3 Matric | 11.61% Std error (0.0104) | 0.10 | 0.46 |
4Tertiary | 10.87% Std error (0.0113) | 0.11 | 0.49 |
Gender
|
5 321 615
| ||
0 Female | 46.50% Std error (0.0154) | Reference group | |
1 Male | 53.50% Std error (0.0154) | 0.49** | 0.00 |
Race
|
5 321 615
| ||
1 African | 78.90% Std error (0.0117) | Reference group | |
2 Coloured | 6.92% Std error (0.0071) | 0.18**** | 0.07 |
3 Asian/Indian | 1.61% Std error (0.0035) | 0.57** | 0.005 |
4 White | 12.57% Std error (0.0093) | 0.60** | 0.00 |
Geographical area
|
5 321 615
| ||
0 Otherwise | 25.60% Std error (0.012) | Reference group | |
1 Urban | 74.40% Std error (0.012) | 0.10 | 0.16 |
Effect | Std. coefficient | S.E. | R2 | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
HC ~ | Education | 0.541 | 0.024 | 0.30 | 0.000 |
Mother’s education | 0.823 | 0.021 | 0.68 | 0.000 | |
Father’s education | 0.831 | 0.021 | 0.69 | 0.000 | |
Health | 0.158 | 0.034 | 0.02 | 0.000 | |
School quintile | 0.513 | 0.033 | 0.24 | 0.000 | |
Goodness of fit results* | Test | Benchmark | Result | Good fit | |
CD | Close to 1 | 0.837 | Yes | ||
SMRM | ≤ 0.06 | 0.017 | Yes |
HCh (no health) | HCf (no father’s educational attainment) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect
|
Estimate
|
Std Error
|
Estimate
|
Std Error
| |
HC ~ | Education | 0.538 | 0.024 | 0.558 | 0.033 |
Mother’s education | 0.821 | 0.022 | 0.795 | 0.034 | |
Fathers education | 0.834 | 0.022 | |||
Health | 0.183 | 0.036 | |||
School quintile | 0.513 | 0.033 | 0.523 | 0.034 | |
Goodness of fit results
|
Benchmark
|
Estimate
|
Good fit
|
Estimate
|
Good fit
|
Post-stratified weights applied*
| Yes | ||||
CD | Close to 1 | 0.837 | Yes | 0.721 | Yes |
SMRM | ≤ 0.06 | 0.002 | Yes | 0.016 | Yes |
No weights applied**
| |||||
CFI | ≥ 0.90 | 0.999 | Yes | 0.987 | Yes |
TFI | ≥ 0.90 | 0.999 | Yes | 0.962 | Yes |
SMRM | ≤ 0.06 | 0.007 | Yes | 0.021 | Yes |
RMSEA | ≤ 0.08 | 0.011 | Yes | 0.053 | Yes |
CD | Close to 1 | 0.836 | Yes | 0.711 | Yes |
Variables | Principal component 1 (PC1) | Principal component (PC2) |
---|---|---|
Education | 0.4449 | 0.0738 |
Mothers education | 0.5448 | -0.0895 |
Fathers education | 0.5458 | -0.1264 |
School quintile | 0.4247 | -0.1749 |
Health | 0.1642 | 0.9695 |
Proportion of variance explained | 0.4832 | 0.1941 |
Eigenvalue | 2.41582 | 0.970373 |
Human capital (Latent) quintiles | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
Total
| |
Geographical area
| ||||||
Urban | 15.0 (0.013) | 18.5 (0.016) | 19.3 (0.015) | 22.2 (0.015) | 24.9 (0.018) | 100 |
Rural | 35.3 (0.023) | 24.5 (0.020) | 21.3 (0.023) | 13.5 (0.016) | 5.5 (0.013) | 100 |
Gender
| ||||||
Female | 20.1 (0.014) | 19.8 (0.017) | 21.1 (0.018) | 20.5 (0.016) | 18.5 (0.017) | 100 |
Male | 20.3 (0.017) | 20.3 (0.018) | 18.7 (0.018) | 19.5 (0.017) | 21.1 (0.021) | 100 |
Race
| ||||||
African | 25.1 (0.014) | 23.3 (0.015) | 23.3 (0.015) | 17.2 (0.013) | 11.1 (0.014) | 100 |
Coloured | 5.7 (0.013) | 19.9 (0.040) | 17.1 (0.035) | 39.2 (0.053) | 18.1 (0.044) | 100 |
Asian & Indian | 0.0 (0) | 16.1 (0.064) | 9.5 (0.042) | 52.5 (0.110) | 21.9 (0.113) | 100 |
White | 0.0 (0) | 0.0 (0) | 0.8 (0.006) | 22.9 (0.031) | 76.4 (0.031) | 100 |
Income quintiles*
| ||||||
1 | 41.4 (0.032) | 25.4 (0.033) | 12.8 (0.018) | 10.6 (0.020) | 9.8 (0.033) | 100 |
2 | 31.5 (0.034) | 25.2 (0.031) | 21.9 (0.032) | 16.9 (0.025) | 4.5 (0.019) | 100 |
3 | 18.7 (0.022) | 27.5 (0.028) | 25.7 (0.032) | 18.5 (0.022) | 9.7 (0.019) | 100 |
4 | 8.5 (0.018) | 14.7 (0.026) | 23.1 (0.029) | 26.8 (0.031) | 27.0 (0.035) | 100 |
5 | 1.2 (0.005) | 7.5 (0.017) | 15.5 (0.027) | 27.1 (0.031) | 48.7 (0.035) | 100 |
Human capital (education attainment) categories | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary or less
|
Secondary
|
Matric
|
Some tertiary
|
Bachelor degree
|
Total
| |
Geographical area
| ||||||
Urban | 7.3 (0.009) | 31.2 (0.018) | 24.0 (0.017) | 25.0 (0.017) | 12.6 (0.011) | 100 |
Rural | 17.7 (0.018) | 42.8 (0.024) | 16.2 (0.021) | 16.0 (0.018) | 7.2 (0.015) | 100 |
Gender
| ||||||
Female | 8.8 (0.009) | 32.3 (0.019) | 19.9 (0.017) | 25.8 (0.019) | 13.3 (0.014) | 100 |
Male | 10.9 (0.013) | 35.8 (0.022) | 23.9 (0.020) | 20.1 (0.019) | 9.4 (0.011) | 100 |
Race
| ||||||
African | 11.7 (0.010) | 38.4 (0.018) | 20.3 (0.015) | 22.2 (0.016) | 7.4 (0.008) | 100 |
Coloured | 9.0 (0.019) | 37.2 (0.050) | 15.5 (0.037) | 23.4 (0.048) | 14.9 (0.040) | 100 |
Asian & Indian | 3.9 (0.036) | 21.7 (0.072) | 33.9 (0.110) | 16.9 (0.058) | 23.7 (0.112) | 100 |
White | 0.0 (0) | 7.3 (0.021) | 34.8 (0.040) | 26.3 (0.032) | 31.6 (0.034) | 100 |
Income quintiles*
| ||||||
1 | 21.7 (0.024) | 52.9 (0.035) | 18.0 (0.030) | 6.8 (0.014) | 0.6 (0.002) | 100 |
2 | 18.0 (0.028) | 42.8 (0.035) | 22.8 (0.030) | 14.3 (0.032) | 2.0 (0.011) | 100 |
3 | 7.9 (0.015) | 47.6 (0.032) | 24.3 (0.027) | 17.5 (0.023) | 2.6 (0.008) | 100 |
4 | 1.9 (0.007) | 19.7 (0.028) | 28.2 (0.034) | 40.1 (0.036) | 10.2 (0.018) | 100 |
5 | 0.4 (0.004) | 7.7 (0.017) | 16.6 (0.030) | 34.9 (0.035) | 40.5 (0.033) | 100 |