6. Nanomaterials

A sampling of some intriguing applications that are already possible using nanomaterials include: self-cleaning fabrics (via TiO₂ nanoparticles), automobile clearcoats that prevent scratches (PPG nanoparticle-based coatings), car wash solutions that prevent dirt from adhering to a painted surface, bandages that kill bacteria, drug-release agents and time-release biocidal coatings, and tennis balls that bounce twice as long as conventional balls.

https://​www.​nano.​gov/​education-training/​university-college

http://​nnci.​net

Now available online at: http://​e-drexler.​com/​p/​06/​00/​EOC_​Cover.​html

A review of nanoparticle-based drugs that may be inhaled for lung cancer treatment: Lee, W. H.; Loo, C. Y.; Traini, D.; Young, P. M. Asian J. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 10, 481.

http://​www.​beilstein-journals.​org/​bjnano/​articles/​6/​181

These include liposomes (e.g., Doxil, a PEGylated liposome), polymers (e.g., BIND-014, PEGylated polymer), metal (e.g., CYT-6091, PEGylated nano Au) and metal oxides (e.g., Ferumoxtran-10, iron oxide nanoparticles), and composite materials (e.g., Abraxane, albumin particles). For more information, see: Wang, Y.; Santos, A.; Evdokiou, A.; Losic, D. J. Mater. Chem. B 2015, 3, 7153.

The global market for products that contain nanomaterials was valued at $26B USD in 2014 and is expected to reach ca. $64.2B USD by 2019—an annual growth rate of 19.8% from 2014. The value of manufactured finished goods that contain nanomaterials is difficult to ascertain; however, estimates are between $3 trillion and $4.4 trillion USD by 2018 (up from $731B in 2012). For more details, see: https://​www.​munichre.​com/​site/​mram-mobile/​get/​documents_​E-1220058942/​mram/​assetpool.​mr_​america/​PDFs/​3_​Publications/​Nanotechnology_​2016.​pdf

“Discussion draft: Addressing nanomaterials as an issue of global concern”, May 2009, Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). Found online at: http://​www.​ciel.​org/​Publications/​CIEL_​NanoStudy_​May09.​pdf

a) De Jong, W. H.; Borm, P. J. A. Int. J. Nanomed. 2008, 3, 133. b) Donaldson K, Stone V, Tran CL, Kreyling W and Borm PJA. Nanotoxicology. Occup Environ Med 2004, 61, 727–728. c) http://​www.​ciel.​org/​wp-content/​uploads/​2015/​07/​Nano_​ToxicRisks_​Nov2014.​pdf

; For details on the biological effects of CNTs, see: Liu, Z.; Cai, W.; He, L.; Nakayama, N.; Chen, K.; Sun, X.; Chen, X.; Dai, H. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2007, 2, 47, and references therein. The biological effects of dendritic polymers is described in Boas, U.; Heegaard, P. M. H. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2004, 33, 43, and references therein. Some websites that have information regarding the toxicological effects of nanostructures include:a) http://​orise.​orau.​gov/​ihos/​Nanotechnology/​nanotech_​OSHrisks.​htmlb) http://​www.​cdc.​gov/​niosh/​topics/​nanotechc) http://​www.​bnl.​gov/​cfn

An example of such a database: Vriens, H.; Mertens, D.; Regret, R.; Lin, P.; Locquet, J. P.; Hoet, P. in “Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology”, Springer: New York, vol. 947, 2017.

Shelley, M. L.; Wagner, A. J.; Hussain, S. M.; Bleckmann, C. Int. J. Toxicol. 2008, 27, 359.

For more information regarding the risk assessment of nanomaterials in a regulatory context, see: http://​www.​ciel.​org/​wp-content/​uploads/​2016/​12/​NanoRiskAssessme​ntFactsheetFinal​_​6dec2016.​pdf

One of the most recent sources of nanotoxicity data is from the European Union Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR), Risk Assessment of Products of Nanotechnologies, Jan. 19, 2009. May be accessed online at: http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​health/​ph_​risk/​committees/​04_​scenihr/​docs/​scenihr_​o_​023.​pdf.The main website of the SCENIHR, that houses other reports, such as the dangers associated with nanomaterials for cosmetics applications, may be found at: http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​health/​ph_​risk/​committees/​04_​scenihr/​04_​scenihr_​en.​htm

Cross, S. E.; Innes, B.; Roberts, M. S.; Tsuzuki, T.; Robertson, T. A.; McCormich, P. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 2007, 20, 148.

Zhu, S.; Oberdorster, E.; Haasch, M. L. Marine Environ. Res. 2006, 62, S5, and references therein.

Henry, T. B.; Petersen, E. J.; Compton, R. N. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2011, 22, 533.

a) Henry, T. B.; Menn, F. M.; Fleming, J. T.; Wilgus, J.; Compton, R. N.; Sayler, G. S. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 1059. b) Kovochich, M.; Epinasse, B.; Auffan, M.; Hotze, E. M.; Wessel, L.; Xia, T.; Nel, A. E.; Weisner, M. R. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 6378. c) Spohn, P.; Hirsch, C.; Hasler, F.; Bruinink, A.; Krug, H. F.; Wick. P. Environ. Pollut. 2009, 157, 1134. d) Zhang, B.; Cho, M.; Fortner, J. D.; Lee, J.; Huang, C. H.; Hughes, J. B.; Kim, J. H. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 108.

Tinkle, S. S, Antonini, J. M., Rich, B. A., Roberts, J. R., Salmen, R., DePree, K., Adkijns, E. J. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 1202.

Watkinson, A.C.; Bunge, A. L.; Hadgraft, J.; Lane, M. E. Pharm. Res. 2013, 30, 1943.

For instance, see:a) Monteiro-Riviere, N. A.; Larese Filon, F. in “Adverse Effects of Engineered Nanoparticles”, Chap. 11, Elevier: New York, 2012.b) Labouta, H. I.; Schneider, M. Nanomedicine 2013, 9, 39.

Holsapple, M. P.; Farland, W. H.; Landry, T. D.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A.; Carter, J. M.; Walker, N. J.; Thomas, K. V. Toxicol. Sci. 2005, 88, 12.

Lademann, J.; Patzelt, A.; Richter, H.; Antoniou, C.; Sterry, W.; Knorr, F. J. Biomed. Opt. 2009, 14, 021014.

For instance, see: Yang, X.; Fan, C.; HS, Z. Toxicol. In Vitro 2002, 16, 41, and references therein.

Sayes, C. M.; Fortner, J. D.; Guo, W.; Lyon, D.; Boyd, A. M.; Ausman, K. D.; Tao, Y. J.; Sitharaman, B.; Wilson, L. J.; Hughes, J. B.; West, J. L.; Colvin, V. L. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 1881, and references therein.

a) Rouse, J. G.; Yang, J.; Ryman-Rasmussen, J. P.; Barron, A. R.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 155. b) Rouse, J. G.; Yang, J.; Barron, A. R.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. In Vitro 2006, 20, 1313. c) Yang, J.; Barron, A. R. Chem. Commun. 2004, 2884 (Article describing the synthesis of amino-acid functionalized fullerenes).

a) Blundell, G.; Henderson, W. J.; Price, E. W. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 1989, 83, 381–385.b) Corachan, M.; Tura, J. M.; Campo, E.; Soley, M.; Traveria, A. Trop. Geogr. Med. 1988, 40, 359–364.c) Tinkle, S. S.; Antonini, J. M.; Rich, B. A.; Roberts, J. R.; Salmen, R.; DePree, K.; Adkins, E. J. EnViron. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 1202–1208.

a) Monteiro-Riviere, N. A.; Nemanich, R. A.; Inman, A. O.; Wang, Y. Y.; Riviere, J. E. Toxicol Lett 2005, 155, 377. b) Degim, I. T.; Burgess, D. J.; Papadimitrakopoulos, F. J. Microencapsul. 2010, 27, 669.

Ryman-Rasmussen, J. P., Riviere, J. E., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. Sci. 2006, 91, 159.

Lademann, J.; Weigmann, H.; Rickmeyer, C.; Barthelmes, H.; Schaefer, H.; Mueller, G.; Sterry, W. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 1999, 12, 247.

Kreilgaard, M. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2002, 54, S77.

Ryman-Rasmussen, J. P.; Riviere, J. E.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. Sci. 2006, 91, 159.

Menon, G. K.; Elias, P. M. Skin Pharmacol 1997, 10, 235.

Tang, L.; Zhang, C.; Song, G.; Jin, X.; Xu, Z. Sci. Chin. Life Sci. 2013, 56, 181.

Hirai, T.; Yoshikawa, T.; Nabeshi, H.; Yoshida, T.; Akase, T.; Yoshioka, Y.; Itoh, N.; Tsutsumi, Y. Pharmazie 2012, 67, 742.

Ostrowski, A.; Nordmeyer, D.; Boreham, A.; Brodwolf, R.; Mundhenk, L.; Fluhr, J. W.; Lademann, J.; Graf, C.; Ruhl, E.; Alexiev, U.; Gruber, A. D. Nanomedicine 2014, 10, 1571.

It is not known whether Zn was absorbed as ZnO or as soluble Zn. Also, hand-to-mouth contamination could also play a role in these studies. Gulson, B.; McCall, M.; Korsch, M.; Gomez, L.; Casey, P.; Oytam, Y.; Taylor, A.; McCulloch, M.; Trotter, J.; Kinsley, L.; Greenoak, G. Toxicol. Sci. 2010, 118, 140.

For a thorough review related to the skin absorption and toxicity of nanoparticles, see: Filon, F. L.; Mauro, M.; Adami, G.; Bovenzi, M.; Crosera, M. Regul. Toxic. Pharmacol. 2015, 72, 310.

Trop, M.; Novak, M.; Rodl, S.; Hellbom, B.; Kroell, W.; Goessler, W. J. Trauma 2006, 60, 648.

For instance, see:a) Frampton, M. W. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 529. b) Ruckerl, R.; Schneider, A.; Breitner, S.; Cyrys, J.; Peters, A. Inhal. Toxicol. 2011, 23, 555. c) Nawrot, T. S.; Alfaro-Moreno, E.; Nemery, B. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 177, 696. d) Kan, H.; London, S. J.; Chen, G.; Zhang, Y.; Song, G.; Zhao, N.; Jiang, L.; Chen, B. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 1183.

Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR), March 10, 2006. May be accessed online at: http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​health/​ph_​risk/​committees/​04_​scenihr/​docs/​scenihr_​o_​003b.​pdf

a) Kittelson, D. B.; Watts, W. F.; Johnson, J. P. On-Road Nanoparticle Measurements, 8th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, Lemnos, Greece, September, 2003. b) Kittelson, D. B.; Watts, W. F.; Johnson, J. P.; Zarling, D.; Schauer, J.; Kasper, A.; Baltensperger, U.; Burtscher, H. Gasoline vehicle exhaust particle sampling study, Proc. U. S. Department of Energy 9th Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, Newport, RI, 2003.

Schwotzer, D.; Ernst, H.; Schaudien, D.; Kock, H.; Pohlmann, G.; Dasenbrock, C.; Creutzenberg, O. Particle Fibre Toxicol. 2017, 14, 23.

Bakand, S.; Hayes, A.; Dechsakulthorn, F. Inhal. Toxicol. 2012, 24, 125.

Donaldson, K.; Poland, C. A. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2013, 24, 724.

a) Oberdörster G.; Sharp, Z.; Atudorei, V.; Elder, A. C. P.; Gelein, R.; Lunts, A.; Kreyling, W.; Cox, C. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2002, 65A, 1531. b) Kreyling, W. G.; Semmler, M.; Erbe F.; Mayer, P.; Takenaka, S.; Schulz, H.; Oberdörster, G.; Ziesenis, A. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2002, 65A, 1513. c) MacNee, W.; Li, X. Y.; Gilmour, P.; Donaldson K. Inhal. Toxicol. 2000, 12, 233. d) Bakand, S.; Hayes, A. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 929.

For example, see:a) Hillyer, J. F.; Albrecht, R. M. J Pharm Sci 2001, 90, 1927. b) Kim, Y. S.; Kim, J. S.; Cho, H. S.; Rha, D. S.; Kim, J. M.; Park, J. D. Inhal Toxicol 2008, 20, 575.

a) Shrivastava, R.; Raza, S.; Yadav, A.; Kushwaha, P.; Flora, S. J. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 2014, 37, 336. b) Liu, Y.; Xu, Z.; Li, X. Brain Inj. 2013, 27, 934. c) Li, T.; Shi, T.; Li, X.; Zeng, S.; Yin, L.; Pu, Y. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 7918.

For instance, see:a) Semmler-Behnke, M.; Kreyling, W. G.; Lipka, J.; Fertsch, S.; Wenk, A.; Takenaka, S. Small 2008, 71, 616. b) Takenaka, S.; Karg, E.; Kreyling, W. G.; Lentner, B.; Möller, W.; Behnke-Semmler, M. Inhal Toxicol 2006, 18, 733.

Kwon, J. T.; Hwang, S. K.; Jin, H.; Kim, D. S.; Minai-Tehrani, A.; Yoon, H. J. J Occup Health 2008, 50, 1.

For example, see:Yu, L. E.; Yung, L. Y.; Ong, C. N.; Tan, Y. L.; Balasubramaniam, S.; Hartono, D. Nanotoxicology 2007, 1, 235.

Semmler, M.; Seitz, J.; Erbe, F.; Mayer, P.; Heyder, J.; Oberörster, G. Inhal Toxicol 2004, 16, 453.

Crüts, B.; Van Etten, L.; Törnqvist, H.; Blomberg, A.; Sandström, T.; Mills, N. L. Part Fibre Toxicol 2008, 5, 4.

a) Takagi, A.; Hirose, A.; Nishimura, T.; Fukumori, N.; Ogata, A.; Ohashi, N.; Kitajima, S.; Kanno, J. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2008, 33, 105. b) Poland, C. A.; Duffin, R.; Kinloch, I.; Maynard, A.; Wallace, W. A. H.; Seaton, A.; Stone, V.; Brown, S.; MacNee, W.; Donaldson, K. Nature Nanotechnol. 2008, 3, 423.

Pacurari, M.; Yin, X. J.; Zhao, J.; Ding, M.; Leonard, S. S.; Schwegler-Berry, D. Environ Health Perspect 2008, 116, 1211.

Magrez, A.; Kasas, S.; Salicio, V.; Pasquier, N.; Seo, J. W.; Celio, M.; Catsicas, S.; Schwaller, B.; Forro, L. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 1121.

Renwick, L. C.; Brown, D.; Clouter, A.; Donaldson, K. Occup Environ Med 2004, 61, 442.

Arnaud, C. H. Chem. Eng. News 2010, 88, 32.

Wilson, M. R.; Lightbody J. H.; Donaldson, K.; Sales, J.; Stone V. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2002, 184, 172.

a) Jordan, A.; Scholz, R.; Wust, P.; Schirra, H.; Thomas, S.; Schmidt, H.; Felix, R. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 1999, 194, 185. b) Zhang, Y., Kohler, N., and Zhang, M. Biomaterials 2002, 23, 1553.

For instance, see:a) Rouse, J. G.; Yang, J.; Barron, A. R.; and Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. In Vitro. 2006, 8, 1313. b) Zhang, L. W.; Zeng, L.; Barron, A. R.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Int. J. Toxicol. 2007, 26, 103.

For example:a) Michalet, X.; Pinaud, F. F.; Bentolila; L. A.; Tsay, J. M.; Doose, S.; Li, J. J.; Sundaresan, G.; Wu, A. M.; Gambhir, S. S.; Weiss, S. Science 2005, 307, 538. b) Derfus, A. M.; Chan, W. C. W.; Bhatia, S. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 11. c) Gao, X.; Cui, Y.; Levenson, R. M.; Chung, L. W.; Nie, S. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 969. d) Xing, Y.; Chaudry, Q.; Shen, C.; Kong, K. Y.; Zhau, H. E.; Chung, L. W.; Petros, J. A.; O’Regan, R. M.; Yezhelyev, M. V.; Simons, J. W. Nat. Protoc. 2007, 2, 1152.

For instance, see:a) A review that summarizes in vitro and in vivo testing of QDs: Yong, K. T.; Law, W. C.; Hu, R.; Ye, L.; Liu, L.; Swihart, M. T.; Prasad, P. N. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2013, 42, 1236. b) Duan, H.; Nie, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 3333. c) Jaiswal, J. K.; Mattoussi, H.; Mauro, J. M.; Simon, S. M. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 47. d) Zhang, L. W.; Yu, W. W.; Colvin, V. L.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2008, 228, 200. e) Ryman-Rasmussen, J. P.; Riviere, J. E.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2007, 127, 143.

Zhang, L. W.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 110, 138.

Radomski, A.; Jurasz, P.; Alonso-Escolano, D.; Drews, M.; Morandi, M.; Malinski, T.; Radomski, M. W. Br. J. Pharm. 2005, 146, 882.

a) Younes, N. R.; Amara, S.; Mrad, I.; Ben-Slama, I.; Jeljeli, M.; Omri, K.; El Ghoul, J.; El Mir, L.; Rhouma, K. B.; Abdelmelek, H. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2015, 22, 8728. b) Almeida, J. P. M.; Chen, A. L.; Foster, A.; Drezek, R. Nanomedicine 2011, 6, 815.

Biswas P.; Wu, C. -Y. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2005, 55, 708.

USEPA Nanotechnology White Paper, Science Policy Council, Feb. 2007. May be accessed online at: https://​www.​epa.​gov/​sites/​production/​files/​2015-01/​documents/​nanotechnology_​whitepaper.​pdf

Zhang et al. Chemosphere, 2007, 67, 160.

Takeda et al. J. Health Sci., 2009, 55, 1.

For a thorough review of the genotoxicity of nanoparticles, see: Gonzalez, L.; Lison, D.; Kirsch-Volders, M. Nanotoxicology 2008, 2, 252.

Li, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Yan, B. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15, 3671.

Khanna, P.; Ong, C.; Bay, B. H.; Baeg, G. H. Nanomaterials 2015, 5, 1163.

Misawa, M.; Takahashi, J. Nanomedicine 2011, 7, 604.

Park, E. -J.; Park, K. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 184, 18.

a) Singh, N.; Manshian, B.; Jenkins, G. J. S.; Griffiths, S. M.; Williams, P. M.; Maffeis, T. G. G.; Wright, C. J.; Doak, S. H. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 3891. b) Alarifi, S.; Ali, D.; Alkahtani, S. Int. J. Nanomed. 2015, 10, 3751. c) Al Gurabi, M. A.; Ali, D.; Alkahtani, S.; Alarifi, S. Onco Targets Ther. 2015, 8, 295. d) Sliwinska, A.; Kwiatkowski, D.; Czarny, P.; Milczarek, J.; Toma, M.; Korycinska, A.; Szemraj, J.; Sliwinski, T. Toxicol. Mech. Methods 2015, 25, 176. e) Lin, W.; Xu, Y.; Huang, C. C.; Ma, Y.; Shannon, K. B.; Chen, D. R.; Huang, Y. W. J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 25. f) Karlsson, H. L.; Cronholm, P.; Gustafsson, J.; Moller, J. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2008, 21, 1726.

Jeng, H. A.; Swanson, J. J. Environ. Sci. Health A 2006, 41, 2699.

Turabekova, M.; Rasulev, B.; Theodore, M.; Jackman, J.; Leszcynska, D.; Leszcynski, J. Nanoscale 2014, 6, 3488.

a) Dobrovolskaia, M. A.; Aggarwal, P.; Hall, J. B.; McNeil, S. E. Mol. Pharm. 2008, 5, 487. b) Chanan-Khan, A.; Szebeni, J.; Savay, S.; Liebes, L.; Rafique, N. M.; Alving, C. R.; Muggia, F. M. Ann. Ancol. 2003, 14, 1430.

For instance, see: Song, Y.; Li, X.; Du, X. Eur. Respir. J. 2009, 34, 559.

Lam, C. W.; James, J. T.; McCluskey, R.; Hunter, R. L. Toxicol. Sci. 2004, 77, 126.

For instance, see: Trouiller, B.; Reliene, R.; Westbrook, A.; Solaimani, P.; Schiestl, R. H. Cancer Res. 2009, 69, 8784.

a) Blum, J. L.; Xiong, J. Q.; Hoffman, C.; Zelikoff, J. T. Toxicol. Sci. 2012, 126, 478. b) Austin, C. A.; Umbreit, T. H.; Brown, K. M.; Barber, D. S.; Dair, B. J.; Francke-Carroll, S.; Feswick, A.; Saint-Louis, M. A.; Hikawa, H.; Seibein, K. N. Nanotoxicology 2012, 6, 912. c) Pietroiusti, A.; Massimiani, M.; Fenoglio, I.; Colonna, M.; Valentini, F.; Palleschi, G.; Camaioni, A.; Magrini, A.; Siracusa, G.; Bergamaschi, A. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 4624. d) Zalgeviciene, V.; Kulvietis, V.; Bulotiene, D.; Didziapetriene, J.; Rotmskis, R. Medicina (Kaunas) 2012, 48, 256. e) Noori, A.; Parivar, K.; Modaresi, M.; Messripour, M.; Yousefi, M. H.; Amiri, G. R. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2011, 10, 1221. f) Umezawa, M.; Kudo, S.; Yanagita, S.; Shinkai, Y.; Niki, R.; Oyabu, T.; Takeda, K.; Ihara, T.; Sugamata, M. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 36, 461. g) Jackson, P.; Hougaard, K. S.; Vogel, U.; Wu, D.; Casavant, L.; Williams, A.; Wade, M.; Yauk, C. L.; Wallin, H.; Halappanavar, S. Mutat. Res. 2012, 745, 73. h) Barton, H. A.; Cogliano, V. J.; Flowers, L.; Valcovic, L.; Setzer, R. W.; Woodruff, T. J. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1125.

Bhabra, G.; Sood, A.; Fisher, B.; Cartwright, L.; Saunders, M.; Evans, W. H.; Surprenant, A.; Lopez-Castejon, G.; Mann, S.; Davis, S. A.; Hails, L. A.; Ingham, E.; Verkade, P.; Lane, J.; Heesom, K.; Newson, R.; Case, C. P. Nature Nanotechnol. 2009, 4, 876.

For a thorough review of the effects of metal nanoparticles on plants and their possible effects in the food chain, see: Ma, C.; White, J. C.; Dhankher, O. M.; Xing, B. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 7109.

Dimkpa, C.; McLean, J.; Latta, D.; Manangon, E.; Britt, D.; Johnson, W.; Boyanov, M.; Anderson, A. J. Nanopart. Res. 2012, 14, 1.

Dimkpa, C. O.; Latta, D. E.; McLean, J. E.; Britt, D. W.; Boyanov, M. I.; Anderson, A. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 4734.

For example, see:a) Yin, L.; Cheng, Y.; Espinasse, B.; Colman, B. P.; Auffan, M.; Wiesner, M.; Rose, J.; Liu, J.; Bernhardt, E. S. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 2360. b) Priester, J. H.; Ge, Y.; Mielke, R. E.; Horst, A. M.; Moritz, S. C.; Espinosa, K.; Gelb, J.; Walker, S. L.; Nisbet, R. M.; An, Y. J.; Schimel, J. P.; Palmer, R. G.; Hernandez-Viezcas, J. A.; Zhao, L.; Gardea-Torresdey, J. L.; Holden, P. A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2012, 109, E2451.

For instance, see:a) Panda, K. K.; Achary, V. M. M.; Krishnaveni, R.; Padhi, B. K.; Sarangi, S. N.; Sahu, S. N.; Panda, B. B. Toxicol. In Vitro 2011, 25, 1097. b) Faisal, M.; Saquib, Q.; Alatar, A. A.; Al-Khedhairy, A. A.; Hegazy, A. K.; Musarrat, J. J. Hazard Mater. 2013, 250, 318. c) Ghosh, M.; Bandyopadhyay, M.; Mukherjee, A. Chemosphere 2010, 81, 1253.

Some reports for no biomagnification: a) Mielke, R. E.; Priester, J. H.; Werlin, R. A.; Gelb, J.; Horst, A. M.; Orias, E.; Holden, P. A. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2013, 79, 5616. b) Zhu, X.; Wang, J.; Zhang, X.; Chang, Y.; Chen, Y. Chemosphere 2010, 79, 928. c) Lewinski, N. A.; Zhu, H.; Ouyang, C. R.; Conner, G. P.; Wagner, D. S.; Colvin, V. L.; Drezek, R. A. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 3080. d) Holbrook, R. D.; Murphy, K. E.; Morrow, J. B.; Cole, K. D. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2008, 3, 352.Some examples that show biomagnification:a) Werlin, R.; Priester, J. H.; Mielke, R. E.; Kramer, S.; Jackson, S.; Stoimenov, P. K.; Stucky, G. D.; Cherr, G. N.; Orias, E.; Holden, P. A. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 65. b) Judy, J. D.; Unrine, J. M.; Bertsch, P. M. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 45, 776. c) Unrine, J. M.; Shoults-Wilson, W. A.; Zhurbich, O.; Bertsch. P. M.; Tsyusko, O. V. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 9753. d) Hawthorne, J.; De la Torre Roche, R.; Xing, B.; Newman, L. A.; Ma, X.; Majumdar, S.; Gardea-Torresdey, J.; White, J. C. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 13,102.

Tervonen, T.; Linkov, I.; Figueira, J. R.; Steevens, J.; Chappell, M.; Merad, M. J. Nanopart. Res. 2009, 11, 757.

a) For a comprehensive roadmap for research strategies needed to evaluate the safety of nanomaterials, see: Holsapple, M. P.; Farland, W. H.; Landry, T. D.; Monteiro-Riviere, N. A.; Carter, J. M.; Walker, N. J.; Thomas, K. V. Toxicol. Sci. 2005, 88, 12. b) For a recent review of test guidelines that should be used to assess the properties and toxicity of engineered nanostructures, see: http://​www.​olis.​oecd.​org/​olis/​2009doc.​nsf/​43bb6130e5e86e5f​c12569fa005d004c​/​fc3f70281e7640a5​c12575ef002eb46b​/​$FILE/​JT03267900.​PDF (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris, 2009).

http://​www.​ethicsweb.​ca/​nanotechnology

Taniguchi, N. On the Basic Concept of NanoTechnology. Proc. ICPE 1974.

https://​www.​nasa.​gov/​centers/​ames/​news/​releases/​2002/​02images/​nanogear/​nanogears.​html

For example, see Pishko, V. V.; Gnatchenko, S. L.; Tsapenko, V. V.; Kodama, R. H.; Makhlouf, S. A. J. Appl. Phys. 2003, 93, 7382.

For a recent review of nanoparticle melting models, see: Nanda, K. K. PRAMANA J. Phys. 2009, 72, 617.

Although quantum dots are typically thought of as 0-D nanostructures, quantum confinement effects are also exhibited in 1-D nanowires and nanorods. Buhro and coworkers have studied the effect on both size and shape on quantum confinement (Yu, H.; Li, J.; Loomis, R. A.; Wang, L.-W.; Buhro, W. E. Nature Mater. 2003, 2, 517). Their work provides empirical data to back up the theoretical order of increasing quantum confinement effects: dots (3-D confinement) > rods > wires (2-D confinement) > wells (1-D confinement). For an example of an interesting nanostructure comprised of both a nanorod and nanodot, see: Mokari, T.; Sztrum, C. G.; Salant, A.; Rabani, E.; Banin, U. Nature Mater. 2005, 4, 855.

For example, see: Dinu, M.; Rapaport, R.; Chen, G.; Stuart, H. R.; Giles, R. Bell Labs Techn. J. 2005, 10, 215.

It should be noted that while nanoparticulate films are generally transparent to light due to minimal scattering, films that contain nanoporous structures may not be optically transparent due to significant light scattering from interconnected/agglomerated pores.

Ruhle, S.; Shalom, M.; Zaban, A. ChemPhysChem 2010, 11, 2290.

For instance, see: Lee, J. W.; Son, D. Y.; Ahn, T. K.; Shin, H. W.; Kim, I. Y.; Hwang, S. J.; Ko, M. J.; Sul, S.; Han, H.; Park, N. G. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3(1050), 1.

For example, see:a) Duan, J.; Tang, Q.; He, B.; Chen, H. RSC Adv. 2015, 5, 33,463. b) Lee, H.; Leventis, H. C.; Moon, S. J.; Chen, P.; Ito, S.; Haque, S. A.; Torres, T.; Nuesch, F.; Geiger, T.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Gratzel, M.; Nazeeruddin, M. K. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2009, 19, 2735. c) Feng, W.; Zhao, L.; Du, J.; Li, Y.; Zhong, X. J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 14,849. d) Jumabekov, A. N.; Siegler, T. D.; Cordes, N.; Medina, D. D.; Bohm, D.; Garbus, P.; Meroni, S.; Peter, L. M.; Bein, T. J. Phys. Chem. C 2014, 118, 25,853.

Luther, J. M.; Law, M.; Beard, M. C.; Song, Q.; Reese, M. O.; Ellingson, R. J.; Nozik, A. J. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 3488.

Kim, M. R.; Ma, D. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6, 85, and references therein.

a) Shaheen, S. E.; Brabec, C. J.; Sariciftci, N. S.; Padinger, F.; Fromherz, T.; Hummelen, J. C. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2001, 78, 841. b) Barkhouse, D. A.; Debnath, R.; Kramer, I. J.; Zhitomirsky, D.; Pattantyus-Abraham, A. G.; Levina, L.; Etgar, L.; Gratzel, M.; Sargent, E. H. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 3134.

Carey, G. H.; Abdelhady, A. L.; Ning, Z.; Thon, S. M.; Bakr, O. M.; Sargent, E. H. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 12,732.

Lan, X.; Voznyy, O.; Garcia de Arquer, F. P.; Liu, M.; Xu, J.; Proppe, A. H.; Walters, G.; Fan, F.; Tan, H.; Liu, M.; Yang, Z.; Hoogland, S.; Sargent, E. H. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 4630.

Some recent high-efficiency reports for QD solar cells include: a) Chuang, C. H. M.; Brown, P. R.; Bulovic, V.; Bawendi, M. G. Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 796. b) Du, J.; Du, Z.; Hu, J. S.; Pan, Z.; Shen, Q.; Sun, J.; Long, D.; Dong, H.; Sun, L.; Zhong, X.; Wan, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 4201.

A related phenomenon to MEG, denoted as electron-hole pair multiplication (EHPM), may also occur in bulk semiconductors. However, this effect is too inefficient in bulk semiconductors since both energy and momentum must be conserved; in contrast, the conservation of momentum is relaxed in QDs. For more information, see: Beard, M. C.; Luther, J. M.; Semonin, O. E.; Nozik, A. J. Acc. Chem. Res. 2012, 46, 1252.

The original report by NREL: https://​www.​nrel.​gov/​docs/​fy06osti/​38992.​pdfThe discovery of MEG has been quite controversial within the optoelectronic research community. For a summary, see: Beard, M. C. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2011, 2, 1282.

Schaller, R. D.; Klimov, V. I. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004, 92, 186,601.

Compton, D.; Comish, L.; van der Lingen, E. Gold Bull. 2003, 36, 10.

For a thorough review of surface plasmon resonance, see Kelly, K. L.; Coronado, E.; Zhao, L. L.; Schatz, G. C. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 668.

Faraday was the first to assert that the red color of gold nanoparticle solutions was due to the interaction of light with particulates of varying morphologies. Mie explained the red color in 1908 by solving Maxwell’s equations based on spheres with sizes comparable to the wavelength of light; however, Raleigh solved the problem for spheres smaller than wavelengths of light. For more details on the interaction of light with metallic nanoparticles and the influence of inter-particle agglomeration, see: Ghosh, S. K.; Pal, T. Chem. Rev. 2007 , 107, 4797.

Haes, A. J.; Stuart, D. A.; Nie, S.; Duyne, R. P. V. J. Fluoresc. 2004, 14, 355.

For instance, one is able to vary the plasmonic properties of Au nanorods by incorporating Cu: Henkel, A.; Jakab, A.; Brunklaus, G.; Sonnichsen, C. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 2200.

For a primer on “thermal energy”, see: http://​hyperphysics.​phy-astr.​gsu.​edu/​hbase/​Kinetic/​eqpar.​html

For a nice review of metal nanoparticles and their electronic properties, see: a) Rao, C. N. R.; Kulkarni, G. U.; Thomas, P. J. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2000, 29, 27. b) Eustis, S.; El-Sayed, A.; Chem. Soc. Rev. 2006, 35, 209.

Busani, R.; Folker, M.; Cheshnovsky, O. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1998, 81, 3836.

Rao, C. N. R.; Kulkarni, G. U.; Thomas, P. J.; Edwards, P. P. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2000, 29, 27.

For more information/precedents on quantum confinement effects for metallic nanoclusters, see: (a) Rao, C. N. R.; Kulkarni, G. U.; Thomas, P. J.; Edwards, P. P. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2000, 29, 27. (b) Mohamed, M. B.; Volkov, V.; Link, S.; El-Sayed, M. A. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2000, 317, 517. (c) Huang, T.; Murray, R. W. J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 12,498. (d) Link, S.; Beeby, A.; FitzGerald, S.; El-Sayed, M. A.; Schaaff, T. G.; Whetten, R. L. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106, 3410. (e) Empedocles, S.; Bawendi, M. Acc. Chem. Res. 1999, 32, 389. (f) El-Sayed, M. A. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 257. (g) Zheng, J.; Petty, J. T.; Dickson, R. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 7780. (h) Schaaff, T. G.; Shafigullin, M. N.; Khoury, J. T.; Vezmar, I.; Whetten, R. L.; Cullen, W. G.; First, P. N.; Gutierrez-Wing, C.; Ascensio, J.; Jose-Yacaman, M. J. J. Phys. Chem. B 1997, 101, 7885.

Ferrofluids are a class of important ternary ferrite spinels are of the formula MFe₂O₄ (M = Co, Mn, Ni), synthesized as nano-sized particulates dispersed in a solvent. These solutions have applications that include electronic devices (e.g., forming seals around spinning drive shafts in computer hard drives; heat conduction in speaker tweeters), automotive (magnetorheological damping for tunable shock absorption), to medicine (hyperthermia-based cancer treatment; i.e., directing nanoparticles to a cancerous area and raising their temperature via an external magnetic field). For a review of ferrofluids, see: Odenbach, S. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 2004, 16, R1135.

With areal densities in excess of 1.7 Tb in⁻², NAND flash memory now surpasses that of hard disk drive (HDD) technology, which are typically in the range 850 Gb in⁻² to 1.3 Tb in⁻² However, with developments in it is likely that areal densities greater than 3 Tb in⁻² are possible within the next few years. A nice website that provides details about trends in the areal densities of magnetic storage devices: http://​digitalpreservat​ion.​gov/​meetings/​documents/​storage13/​GaryDecad_​Technology.​pdf

a) Ge, J.; Hu, Y.; Diasini, M.; Beyermann, W. P.; Yin, Y. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4342. b) Esteban-Cubillo, A.; Pina-Zapardiel, R.; Moya, J. S.; Pecharroman, C. J. Nanop. Res. 2009, ASAP. c) Yang, C.; Xing, J.; Guan, Y.; Liu, J.; Liu, H. J. Alloys Compounds 2004, 385, 283.For more details regarding superparamagnetism, see: http://​lmis1.​epfl.​ch/​webdav/​site/​lmis1/​shared/​Files/​Lectures/​Nanotechnology%20​for%20​engineers/​Archives/​2004_​05/​Superparamagneti​sm.​pdf

For examples, see: a) Monson, T. C.; Venturini, E. L.; Petkov, V.; Ren, Y.; Lavin, J. M.; Huber, D. L. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2013, 331, 156. b) Duarte, E. L.; Itri, R.; Lima, E.; Baptista, M. S.; Berguo, T. S.; Goya, G. F. Nanotechnology 2006, 17, 1. c) Oyarzun, S.; Tamion, A.; Tournus, F.; Dupuis, V.; Hillenkamp, M. Sci. Reports 2015, 5, 14,749. d) Gambardella, P.; Rusponi, S.; Veronese, M.; Dhesi, S. S.; Grazioli, C.; Dallmeyer, A.; Cabria, I.; Zeller, R.; Dederichs, P. H.; Kern, K.; Carbone, C.; Brune, H. Science 2003, 300, 1130.

For more details on next-generation materials for magnetic storage devices, see: a) Bandic, Z. Z.; Litvinov, D.; Rooks, M. MRS Bull. 2008, 33, 831. b) Liao, J. W.; Zhang, H. W.; Lai, C. H. “Magnetic Nanomaterials for Data Storage” in Magnetic Nanomaterials: Fundamentals, Synthesis, and Applications. Wiley: New York, 2017.

For more information about HAMR, see: Chen, Y. J.; Yang, H. Z.; Leong, S. H.; Wu, B. L.; Asbahi, M.; YuY u Ko, H.; Yang, J. K. W.; Ng, V. Appl Phys. Lett. 2014, 105, 162,402, and references therein.

a) Skumryev, V.; Stoyanov, S.; Zhang, Y.; Hadjipanayis, G.; Givord, D.; Nogues, J. Nature, 2003, 423, 850. b) Eisenmenger, J.; Schuller, I. K. Nat. Mater. 2003, 2, 437. c) Fullerton, E. E.; Margulies, D. T.; Schabes, M. E.; Carey, M.; Gurney, B.; Moser, A.; Best, M.; Zeltzer, G.; Rubin, K.; Rosen, H.; Doerner, M. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2000, 77, 3806.

a) Vopson, M. M.; Zemaityte, E.; Spreitzer, M.; Namvar, E. J. Appl. Phys. 2014, 116, 113,910. b) Kim, H. K. D.; Schelhas, L. T.; Keller, S.; Hockel, J. L.; Tolbert, S. H.; Carman, G. P. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 884.

Kroto, H. W.; Heath, J. R.; O’Brien, S. C.; Curl, R. F.; Smalley, R. E. Nature 1985, 318, 162.

Smalley and Curl named this structure after Buckminster Fuller, for his discovery of geodesic domes.

The irradiation of C₆₀ with light in the presence of O₂ causes the formation of reactive singlet oxygen (¹O₂); for example, see Jensen, A. W.; Daniels, C. J. Org. Chem. 2003, 68, 207.

Andreoli, E.; Barron, A. R. Energy & Fuels 2015, 29, 4479.

Heimann, J.; Morrow, L.; Anderson, R. E.; Barron, A. R. Dalton Trans. 2015, 44, 4380.

Shirai, Y.; Osgood, A. J.; Zhao, Y.; Kelly, K. F.; Tour, J. M. Nano Lett. 2005, 11, 2330. The difference between nanocars and nanotrucks has been described as the former is only able to transport itself, whereas a nanotruck is able to accommodate a load. More recently, “nanodragsters” have been synthesized that have a shorter axle with smaller wheels in the front and a larger axle with larger wheels in the back: Vives, G.; Kang, J.; Kelly, K. F.; Tour, J. M. Org. Lett. 2009, 11, 5602.

a) Shirai, Y.; Osgood, A. J.; Zhao, Y.; Kelly, K. F.; Tour, J. M. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 2330. b) Shirai, Y.; Osgood, A. J.; Zhao, Y.; Yao, Y.; Saudan, L.; Yang, H.; Chiu, Y.-H.; Alemany, L. B.; Sasaki, T.; Morin, J.-F.; Guerrero, J. M.; Kelly, K. F.; Tour, J. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 126, 4854.

For an interesting book on the history of other serendipitous discoveries in science, see Roberts, R. M. Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science, Wiley: New York, 1989. Note: Exxon first obtained mass spectra of fullerenes during their analysis of coke build-up on a reforming catalyst. However, subsequent work by Smalley, Curl and Kroto yielded larger concentrations of gaseous carbon clusters, of which mass spectra more clearly showed the existence of stable, even-numbered clusters with the intensity of the C₆₀ species being 20% greater than neighbors (Figure 6.27). For more information, see: Smalley, R. E. Discovering the Fullerenes, Nobel Lecture, Dec. 1996, may be accessed online at: http://​nobelprize.​org/​nobel_​prizes/​chemistry/​laureates/​1996/​smalley-lecture.​pdf

Kroto, H. Nanotechnology 1992, 3, 111. A lecture given in the same title is also available as an audio file from: http://​www.​learnoutloud.​com/​Catalog/​Science/​Scientists/​C60-The-Celestial-Sphere-That-Fell-to-Earth/​15201

For instance, see: a) Morales, A. M.; Lieber, C. M. Science 1998, 279, 208. b) Itina, T. E.; Sentis, M.; Marine, V. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2006, 252, 4433. c) Saitow, K. J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 109, 3731. d) Marine, W.; Patrone, L.; Lukyanchuk, B.; Sentis, M. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2000, 154–155, 345. e) Ozerov, I.; Bulgakov, A. V.; Nelson, D. K.; Castell, R.; Marine, W. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2005, 247, 677.

For a review of fullerene production methods, see: Lamb, L. D.; Huffman, D. R. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 1993, 54, 1635.

a) Kriitschmer. W.; Lamb. L. D.; Fostiropoulos, K.; Huffman. D. R. Nature 1990, 347, 354. b) Kratschmer, W.; Fostiropoulos, K.; Huffman, D. R. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1990, 170, 167.

Ewels, C. P. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 890.

Smalley, R. E. Acc. Chem. Res. 1992, 25, 98.

Heath, J. R. ACS Symp. Ser. 1992, 481, 1.

a) V. Z. Mordkovich, V. Z.; Umnov, A. G.; Inoshita, T.; Endo, M. Carbon 1999, 37, 1855. b) Mordkovich, V. Z. Chem. Mater. 2000, 12, 2813.

Sygula, A.; Rabideau, P. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 7800.

a) Scott, L. T.; Boorum, M. M.; McMahon, B. J.; Hagen, S.; Mack, J.; Blank, J.; Wegner, H.; de Meijere, A. Science 2002, 295, 1500.b) Scott, L. T. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 2004, 43, 4994.

Kabdulov, M.; Jansen, M.; Amsharov, K. Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 17,262.

Otero, G.; Biddau, G.; Sanchez, C.; Caillard, R.; Lopez, M. F.; Rogero, C.; Palomares, F. J.; Cabello, N.; Basanta, M. A.; Ortega, J.; Mendez, J.; Echavarren, A. M.; Perez, R.; Gomez, B.; Martin-Gago, J. A. Nature 2008, 454, 865.

For a review of surface-assisted syntheses of fullerenes, Buckybowls, and single-walled carbon nanotubes, see: Amsharov, K. “From Polyphenylenes to Nanographenes and Graphene Nanoribbons” in Advances in Polymer Science, vol. 278, 2017 (https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​12_​2017_​7)

a) Komatsu, K.; Murata, M.; Murata, Y. Science 2005, 307, 238. b) Lopez-Gejo, J.; Marti, A. A.; Ruzzi, M.; Jockusch, S.; Komatsu, K.; Tanabe, F.; Murata, Y.; Turro, N. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 14,554.

Gluch, K.; Feil, S.; Matt-Laubner, S. M.; Echt, O.; Scheier, P.; Mark, T. D. J. Phys. Chem. A 2004, 108, 6990.

Wang, C.-R.; Shi, Z.-Q.; Wan, L.-J.; Lu, X.; Dunsch, L.; Shu, C.-Y.; Tang, Y.-L.; Shinohara, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006, 128, 6605.

Gan, L.-H.; Wang, C.-R. J. Phys. Chem. A 2005, 109, 3980.

Tillmann, J.; Wender, J. H.; Bahr, U.; Bolte, M.; Lerner, H. W.; Holthausen, M. C.; Wagner, M. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 2015, 54, 5429.

Pichierri, F.; Kumar, V. J. Molec. Struct.: THEOCHEM 2009, 900, 71.

Bapat, P. V.; Kraft, R.; Camata, R. P. J. Nanopart. Res. 2012, 14, 1163.

Glaspell, G.; Abdelsayed, V.; Saoud, K. M.; El-Shall, M. S. Pure Appl. Chem. 2006, 78, 1667.

For example, see: Shimada, M.; Azuma, Y.; Okuyama, K.; Hayashi, Y.; Tanabe, E. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2006, 45, 328.

Bapat, A.; Gatti, M.; Ding, Y. -P.; Campbell, S. A.; Kortshagen, U. J. Phys. D.: Appl. Phys. 2007, 40, 2247.

Aktas, S.; Thornton, S. C.; Binns, C.; Lari, L.; Pratt, A.; Kroger, R.; Horsfield, M. A. Mater. Res. Express 2015, 2, 1.

Vemury, S.; Pratsinis, S. E.; Kibbey, L. J. Mater. Res. 1997, 12, 1031.

For example, see: a) Shoutian, L.; Igor, N.; Germanenko, N.; El-Shall, M. S. J. Cluster Sci. 1999, 10, 533. b) Ayers, T. M.; Fye, J. L.; Li, Q.; Duncan, M. A. J. Cluster Sci. 2003, 14, 97. c) El-Shall, M. S.; Si, S. T.; Graiver, D.; Pernisz, U. Nanotech ACS Symp. Series 1996, 622, 79.

a) Belouet, C. Appl. Surf. Sci. 1996, 96–98, 630.

Ahonen, P. P.; Joutsensaari, J.; Richard O. J. Aerosol Sci. 2001, 32, 615.

For instance, see: a) Lee, H.; Habas, S. E.; Kweskin, S.; Butcher, D.; Somorjai, G. A.; Yang, P. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 7824, and references therein. b) Ahmadi, T. S.; Wang, Z. L.; Green, T. C.; Henglein, A.; El-Sayed, M. A. Science 1996, 272, 1924.

Glaspell, G.; Abdelsayed, V.; Saoud, K. M.; El-Shall, M. S. Pure Appl. Chem. 2006, 78, 1667.

(a) Yonezawa, T.; Onoue, S.-Y.; Kimizuka, N. Langmuir 2000, 16, 5218. (b) Yonezawa, T.; Onoue, S.-Y.; Kimizuka, N. Chem. Lett. 2002, 528.

Crooks, R. M.; Zhao, M.; Sun, L.; Chechik, V.; Yeung, L. K. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 181, and references therein. The first precedent for the use of poly(propylene imine) (PPI) dendrimers is: Floriano, P. N.; Noble, C. O.; Schoonmaker, J. M.; Poliakoff, E. D.; McCarley, R. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 10,545. This also contains many useful references for early precedents for metal@PAMAM nanocomposites.

For an example of trimetallic nanoparticle synthesis (using a nondendritic host), see: Henglein, A. J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 6683.

Schaak, R. E.; Sra, A. K.; Leonard, B. M.; Cable, R. E.; Bauer, J. C.; Han, Y.-F.; Means, J.; Teizer, W.; Vasquez, Y.; Funck, E. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 3506.

a) Kim, C.; Lee, H. Catalysis Commun. 2009, 10, 1305. b) Siekkinen, A. R.; McLellan, J. M.; Chen, J.; Xia, Y. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2006, 432, 491. c) Patel, K.; Kapoor, S.; Dave, D. P.; Mukherjee, T. Res. Chem. Intermed. 2006, 32, 103. d) Mallik, K.; Mandal, M.; Pradhan, N.; Pal, T. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 319. e) Tsuji, M.; Matsuo, R.; Jiang, P.; Miyamae, N.; Hikino, S.; Kumagae, H.; Sozana, K.; Kamarudin, N.; Tang, X. -L. Cryst. Growth Des. 2008, 8, 2528.

Kim, J. -H.; Bryan, W. W.; Lee, T. R. Langmuir 2008, 24, 11,147, and references therein.

Chen, L.; Zhang, D.; Chen, J.; Zhou, H.; Wan, H. Mater. Sci. Engin. A 2006, 415, 156, and references therein.

For example, see: a) Saleh, N.; Sarbu, T.; Sirk, K.; Lowry, G. V.; Matyjaszewski, K.; Tilton, R. D. Langmuir 2005, 21, 9873. b) Herrera, A. P.; Resto, O.; Briano, J. G.; Rinaldi, C. Nanotechnol. 2005, 16, S618.

Knecht, M. R.; Garcia-Martinez, J. C.; Crooks, R. M. Langmuir 2005, 21, 11,981.

For instance, see: a) Thurmond, K. B.; Kowalewski, T.; Wooley, K. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 7239. b) Butun, V.; Billingham, N. C.; Armes, S. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 12,135. c) Zhou, Y.; Jiang, K.; Chen, Y.; Liu, S. J. Polym. Sci. A 2008, 46, 6518. d) O’Reilly, R. K.; Joralemon, M. J.; Wooley, K. L.; Hawker, C. J. Chem. Mater. 2005, 17, 5976.

Deepagan, V. G.; Kwon, S.; You, D. G.; Nguyen, V. Q.; Um, W.; Ko, H.; Lee, H.; Jo, D. G.; Kang, Y. M.; Park, J. H. Biomaterials 2016, 103, 56.

(a) Garcia-Martinez, J. C.; Crooks, R. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 16,170–16,178. (b) Garcia-Martinez, J. C.; Scott, R. W. J.; Crooks, R. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 11,190–11,191. (c) Kim, Y.-G.; Garcia-Martinez, J. C.; Crooks, R. M. Langmuir 2005, 21, 5485–5491.

For instance, see:a) Nayak, R.; Galsworthy, J.; Dobson, P.; Hutchison, J. J. Mater. Res. 1998, 3, 905ff.b) Trindade, T. et al. Chem. Mater. 2001, 13, 3843.

For a review of polymer brush syntheses via surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization, see: Barbey, R.; Lavanant, L.; Paripovic, D.; Schuwer, N.; Sugnaux, C.; Tugulu, S.; Klok, H. -A. Chem. Rev. 2009, 109, 5437.

For examples of nanoparticles grown via the polyol route, see: a) Elkins, K. E.; Chaubey, G. S.; Nandwana, V.; Liu, J. P. J. Nano Res. 2008, 1, 23. b) Wiley, B.; Herricks, T.; Sun, Y.; Xia, Y. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 2057, and references therein.

Sun, S.; Zeng, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 8204. Other examples of solution-phase growth of oxide, and other compound 0D nanostructures (including quantum dots) are: (a) Strable, E.; Bulte, J. W. M.; Moskowitz, B.; Vivekanandan, K.; Allen, M.; Douglas, T.Chem. Mater. 2001, 13, 2201. (b) Frankamp, B. L.; Boal, A. K.; Tuominen, M. T.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 9731. (c) Lemon, B. I.; Crooks, R. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 12,886. (d) Hanus, L. H.; Sooklal, K.; Murphy, C. J.; Ploehn, H. J. Langmuir 2000, 16, 2621.

Redi, F. X.; Cho, K. -S.; Murray, C. B.; O’Brien, S. Nature 2003, 423, 968.

Nandwana, V.; Elkins, K. E.; Poudyal, N.; Chaubey, G. S.; Yano, K.; Liu, J. P. J. Phys. Chem. C 2007, 111, 4185.

Murray, C. B.; Norris, D. J.; Bawendi, M. G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 8706.

a) Hines, M. A.; Scholes, G. D. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 1844. b) Choi, H.; Ko, J. H.; Kim, Y. H.; Jeong, S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 5278. c) Cademartiri, L.; Bertolotti, J.; Sapienza, R.; Wiersma, D. S.; von Freymann, G.; Ozin, G. A. J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 110, 671.

Juttukonda, V.; Paddock, R. L.; Raymond, J. E.; Denomme, D.; Richardson, A. E.; Slusher, L. E.; Fahlman, B. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 420.

Vacassy, R.; Flatt, R. J.; Hofmann, H.; Choi, K. S.; Singh, R. K. J. Coll. Interf. Sci. 2000, 227, 302.

Jolivet, J. -P.; Chaneac, C.; Trone, E. Chem. Commun. 2004, 481.

A clever way to generate H₂S gas in situ from thiacetamide rather than having to handle a cylinder of the dangerous nerve gas: H₃CC(S)NH₂ + H₂O → H₂S + CH₃COO⁻ + NH₄ ⁺.

It should be noted that in addition to solution-phase methods, quantum dots are frequently synthesized using molecular-beam epitaxy or other vapor-phase technique. For example, see: Wang, X. Y.; Ma, W. Q.; Zhang, J. Y.; Salamo, G. J.; Xiao, M.; Shih, C. K. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 1873, and references therein.

A review of core-shell nanoparticles: Chaudhuri, R. G.; Paria, S. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 2373.

For a review of nanoshell synthesis, properties, and applications, see: Kalele, S.; Gosavi, S. W.; Urban, J.; Kulkarni, S. K. Curr. Sci. 2006, 91, 1038.

For a review of gold nanoshells and applications, see: a) Bardhan, R.; Chen, W.; Perez-Torres, C.; Bartels, M.; Huschka, R. M.; Zhao, L.; Morosan, E.; Pautler, R.; Joshi, A.; Halas, N. J. Adv. Func. Mater. 2009, 19, 3901. b) Barhoumi, A.; Huschka, R. M.; Bardhan, R.; Knight, M. W.; Halas, N. J. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2009, 482, 171. c) Lal, S.; Clare, S. E.; Halas, N. J. Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, 1842. d) Westcott, S.; Oldenburg, S.; Lee, T. R.; Halas, N. J. Langmuir, 1998, 14, 5396 (& 7378).

(a) Kamata, K.; Lu, Y.; Xia, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 2384. (b) Marinakos, S. M.; Shultz, D. A.; Feldheim, D. L. Adv. Mater. 1999, 11, 34. (c) Chah, S.; Fendler, J. H.; Yi, J. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2002, 250, 142. (d) Marinakos, S. M.; Novak, J. P.; Brousseau, L. C., III; House, A. B.; Edeki, E. M.; Feldhaus, J. C.; Feldheim, D. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 8518.

Chen, M.; Gao, L. Inorg. Chem. 2006, 45, 5145.

Yin, Y.; Rioux, R. M.; Erdonmez, C. K.; Hughes, S.; Somorjai, G. A.; Alivisatos, A. P. Science 2004, 304, 711.

a) Ivanov, S. A.; Piryatinski, A.; Nanda, J.; Tretiak, S.; Zavadil, K. R.; Wallace, W. O.; Werder, D.; Klimov, V. I. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 11,708. b) Ning, Z.; Tian, H.; Yuan, C.; Fu, Y.; Qin, H.; Sun, L.; Agren, H. Chem. Commun. 2011, 47, 1536.

Carey, G. H.; Abdelhady, A. L.; Ning, Z.; Thon, S. M.; Bakr, O. M.; Sargent, E. H. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 12,732.

Some review articles related to organic-based core-shell nanoparticles: a) Kirsch, S.; Doerk, A.; Bartsch, E.; Sillescu, H.; Landfester, K.; Spiess, H. W.; Maechtle, W. Macromolecules 1999, 32, 4508. b) Chan, J. M.; Zhang, L.; Yuet, K. P.; Liao, G.; Rhee, J. W.; Langer, R.; Farokhzad, O. C. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 1627. c) Nah, J. W.; Jeong, Y. I.; Cho, C. S. J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Phys. 1998, 36, 415.

For example: Dresco, P. A.; Zaitsev, V. S.; Gambino, R. J.; Chu, B. Langmuir 1999, 15, 1945.

(a) Synthesis of the Iridium complex is reported in: Finke, R. G.; Lyon, D. K.; Nomiya, K.; Sur, S.; Mizuno, N. Inorg. Chem. 1990, 29, 1784. (b) Aiken, J. D.; Lin, Y.; Finke, R. G. J. Mol. Catal. A 1996, 114, 29.

For a detailed discussion of the mechanistic steps, see: Besson, C.; Finney, E. E.; Finke, R. G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 8179, and references therein.

For a thorough recent review on nanostructural growth via coprecipitation of multiple species (and ways to synthesize/stabilize 0D nanostructures), consult: Cushing, B. L.; Kolesnichenko, V. L.; O’Connor, C. J. Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 3893.

a) Murray, C. B.; Kagan, C. R.; Bawendi, M. G. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 2000, 30, 545. b) LaMer, V. K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1950, 72, 4847. c) Saraiva, S. M.; de Oliveira, J. F. J. Dispersion Sci. Technol. 2002, 23, 837.

For example, see: a) Kimling, J.; Maier, M.; Okenve, B.; Kotaidis, V.; Ballot, H.; Plech, A. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 15,700. b) Ji, X.; Song, X.; Li, J.; Bai, Y.; Yang, W.; Yeng, X. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13,939.

Pong, B. -K.; Elim, H. I.; Chong, J. -X.; Ji, W.; Trout, B. L.; Lee, J. -Y. J. Phys. Chem. C 2007, 111, 6281.

For more details regarding proposed mechanisms for Au/Ag nanoparticle growth via citrate reduction/stabilization, see: a) Rodriguez-Gonzalez, B.; Mulvaney, P.; Liz-Marzan, L. M. Z. Phys. Chem. 2007, 221, 415. b) Pillai, Z. S.; Kamat, P. V. J. Phys. Chem. B 2004, 108, 945.

L. Colombi Ciacchi, W. Pompe, A. De Vita, J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 1755.

Emerson, S. C. Synthesis of Nanometer-size Inorganic Materials for the Examination of Particle Size Effects on Heterogeneous Catalysis, Ph.D. thesis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 2000. May be accessed online at: http://​www.​wpi.​edu/​Pubs/​ETD/​Available/​etd-0503100-105634/​unrestricted/​emerson.​pdf

Whetten, R. L.; Khoury, J. T.; Alvarez, M. M.; Murthy, S.; Vezmar, I.; Wang, Z. L.; Stephens, P. W.; Cleveland, C. L.; Luedtke, W. D.; Landman, U. Adv. Mater. 1996, 8, 428.

Finke, R. G. in Metal Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications, Feldheim, D. L.; Foss, C. A. eds., Dekker: New York, 2002. Crooks and coworkers determined that a closed-shell metallic nanocluster of Au₅₅ has a diameter of 1.2 nm: Kim, Y.-G.; Oh, S.-K.; Crooks, R. M. Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 167.

a) Yu, J. H.; Joo, J.; Park, H. M.; Baik, S. L.; Kim, Y. W.; Kim, S. C.; Hyeon, T. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 5662. b) Cho, K. S.; Talapin, D. V.; Gaschler, W.; Murray, C. B.; J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 7140.

For a thorough review of shape control for nanocrystals, see: Xie, Y.; Xiong, Y.; Lim, B.; Skrabalak, S. E. Adv. Mater. 2009, 48, 60.

For instance, see: a) Using focused-ion beam (FIB): McMahon, M. D.; Hmelo, A. B.; Lopez, R.; Ryle, W. T.; Newton, A. T.; Haglund, R. F.; Feldman, L. C.; Weller, R. A.; Magruder, R. H. Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 2003, 739, H2.7.1. b) Liu, K.; Ho, C. -L.; Aouba, S.; Zhao, Y. -Q.; Lu, Z. -H.; Petrov, S.; Coombs, N.; Dube, P.; Ruda, H. E.; Wong, W. -Y. Angew. Chem. 2008, 120, 1275. c) Yonezawa, T.; Itoh, T.; Shirahata, N.; Masuda, Y.; Koumoto, K. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2007, 254, 621. d) Resch, R.; Baur, C.; Bugacov, A.; Koel, B. E.; Madhukar, A.; Requicha, A. A. G.; Will, P. Langmuir, 1998, 14, 6613.

Tsai, D. -H.; Kim, S. H.; Corrigan, T. D.; Phaneuf, R. J.; Zachariah, M. R. Nanotechnology 2005, 16, 1856.

Redi, F. X.; Cho, K. -S.; Murray, C. B.; O’Brien, S. Nature 2003, 423, 968.

(a) Decher, G.; Hong, J. D. Makromol. Chem. Macromol. Symp. 1991, 46, 321. (b) Decher, G.; Hong, J. D.; Schmitt, J. Thin Solid Films 1992, 210, 831. For a recent review of electrostatic LbL growth, see: Hammond, P. T. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 1271.

Adamantyl groups were used on the periphery of the dendrimers since they strongly interact with cyclodextrins. For example, see: Rekharsky, M. V.; Inoue, Y. Chem. Rev. 1998, 98, 1880–1901.

(a) Iijima, S. Nature 1991, 354, 56 (first report of MWNTs). (b)Iijima, S. Nature 1993, 363, 603 (SWNT co-precedent). (c) Bethune, D. S.; Kiang, C. H.; Devries, M. S.; Gorman, G.; Savoy, R.; Vazquez, J.; Beyers, R. Nature 1993, 363, 605 (SWNT co-precedent).

The term graphene designates a single layer of carbon atoms packed into hexagonal units. Though this structure is used to describe properties of many carbonaceous materials (e.g., CNTs, graphite, fullerenes, etc.), this planar structure is thermodynamically unstable relative to curved structures such as fullerenes, nanotubes, and other structures found in carbon soot. As such, the isolation of single graphene sheets has only recently been reported through exfoliation from a high purity graphite crystal: Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K.; Morozov, S. V.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Dubonos, S. V.; Grigorieva, I. V.; Firsov, A. A. Science 2004, 306, 666.

For more information, see: a) Ruoff, R. S.; Qian, D.; Liu, W. K. C. R. Physique 2003, 4, 993. b) Collins, P. G.; Avouris, P. Scientific American 2000, 283, 62. c) Ibrahim, K. S. Carbon Lett. 2013, 14, 131. d) Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; Avouris, P. Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications; Springer: New York, 2001. e) De Volder, M. F. L.; Tawfick, S. H.; Baughman, R. H.; Hart, A. J. Science 2013, 339, 535.

a) Yu, M. F.; Files, B. S.; Arepalli, S.; Ruoff, R. S. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2000, 84, 5552. b) Kim, P.; Shi, L.; Majumdar, A.; McEuen, P. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2001, 87, 215,502.

a) Dresselhaus, M. S.; Dresselhaus, G.; Jorio, A.; Souza Filho, A. G.; Pimenta, M. A.; Saito, R. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 1070. b) Rao, A. M.; Richter, E.; Bandow, S.; Chase, B.; Eklund, P. C.; Williams, K. A.; Fang, S.; Subbaswamy, K. R.; Menon, M.; Thess, A.; Smalley, R. E.; Dresselhaus, G.; Dresselhaus, M. S. Science 1997, 275, 187. c) Weisman, R. B.; Subramoney, S. Electrochem. Soc. Interf. 2006 (summer), 42.

For extensive reviews of molecular electronics see: (a) Tour, J. M. Molecular Electronics: Commercial Insights, Chemistry, Devices, Architecture and Programming; World Scientific: River Edge, NJ, 2003. (b) Tour, J. M.; James, D. K. in Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology; Goddard, W. A., III; Brenner, D. W.; Lyshevski, S. E.; Iafrate, G. J. eds.,;RC: New York, 2003; pp. 4.1–4.28. (c) Tour, J. M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2000, 33, 791.

Field emission results from the tunneling of electrons from a metal tip into a vacuum, under an applied strong electric field (Chap. 7 will have more details on this phenomenon, and how it is exploited for high-resolution electron microscopy).

https://​www.​technologyreview​.​com/​s/​406915/​high-definition-carbon-nanotube-tvs/​

Current “QLED” televisions feature photo-emissive particles, which use a layer of quantum dots to convert the backlight to emit pure basic colors, thereby improving the brightness and color range. In contrast, next-generation electro-emissive QD displays are similar to active-matrix OLEDs, in which light is produced directly by each pixel by applying electrical current to QDs. As seen earlier in this chapter, the color emitted by a QD is related to its size and composition.a) https://​www.​soundandvision.​com/​content/​connecting-dots-0b) https://​www.​cnet.​com/​news/​how-qled-tv-could-help-samsung-finally-beat-lgs-oleds/​

a) Wang, Q. H.; Setlur, A. A.; Lauerhaas, J. M.; Dai, J. Y.; Seelig, E. W.; Chang, R. P. H. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1998, 72, 2912. b) http://​imechanica.​org/​files/​FinalProject_​12_​9_​Group2.​pdf c) Choi, Y. S.; Kang, J. H.; Park, Y. J.; Choi, W. B.; Lee, C. J.; Jo, S. H.; Lee, C. G.; You, J. H.; Jung, J. E.; Lee, N. S.; Kim, J. M. Diam. Rel. Mater. 2001, 10, 1705.

a) Liang, X.; Xia, J.; Dong, G.; Tian, B.; Peng, L. Top. Curr. Chem. 2016, 374, 80. b) https://​www.​chemistryworld.​com/​news/​carbon-nanotubes-in-large-panel-displays/​3000744.​article

a) Sun, D. M.; Timmermans, M. Y.; Tian, Y.; Nasibulin, A. G.; Kauppinen, E. I.; Kishimoto, S.; Mizutani, T.; Ohno, Y. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 156. b) McCarthy, M. A. Liu, B.; Donoghue, E. P.; Kravchenko, I.; Kim, D. Y.; So, F.; Finzler, A. G. Science 2011, 332, 570. c) Wang, C.; Zhang, J.; Ryu, K.; Badmaev, A.; Gomez, L.; Zhou, C. Nano Lett. 2009, 12, 4285. d) Chen, P.; Fu, Y.; Aminirad, R.; Wang, C.; Zhang, J.; Wang, K.; Galatsis, K.; Zhou, C. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 5301.

https://​cen.​acs.​org/​articles/​92/​web/​2014/​01/​Carbon-Nanotube-Transistors-Help-Displays.​html

http://​www.​guo.​ece.​ufl.​edu/​CNTFET_​IJHES_​published.​pdf

(a) Avouris, P. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 1026. (b) Wind, S. J.; Appenzeller, J.; Martel, R.; Derycke, V.; Avouris, P. Appl Phys. Lett. 2002, 80, 3817. A recent strategy for the bottom-up design of CNT interconnects: Li, J.; Ye, Q.; Cassel, A.; Ng, H. T.; Stevens, R.; Han, J.; Meyyappan, M. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2003, 82, 2491.

Shulaker, M. M.; Hills, G.; Patil, N.; Wei, H.; Chen, H. Y.; Wong, H. S. P.; Mitra, S. Nature 2013, 501, 526.

Yakabson, B. I. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1998, 72, 918.

Micro-Raman spectroscopy has shown that during tension, only the outer layers of MWNTs are loaded, whereas during compression, the load is transferred to all layers.

Salvetat, J.-P.; Briggs, G. A. D.; Bonard, J.-M.; Basca, R. R.; Kulik, A. J.; Stöckli, T.; Burnham, N. A.; Forró, L. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1999, 82, 944.

Filleter, T.; Espinosa, H. D. Carbon 2013, 56, 1.

In 2005, the winner of the Tour de France used a bicycle composed of a CNT composite: https://​www.​cnet.​com/​news/​carbon-nanotubes-enter-tour-de-france/​

Zhang, Y.; Zou, G.; Doorn, S. K.; Htoon, H.; Stan, L.; Hawley, M. E.; Sheehan, C. J.; Zhu, Y.; Jia, Q. ACS Nano 2009, 3, 2157.

This work is being developed by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, through collaboration with the MIT Institute of Soldier Nanotechnology:a) http://​isnweb.​mit.​edub) https://​www.​arl.​army.​mil/​www/​pages/​510/​TAB_​ISN-2_​2012_​for_​print.​pdf

http://​www.​temp.​speautomotive.​com/​SPEA_​CD/​SPEA2013/​pdf/​NN/​NN4.​pdf

For a very nice summary of specific stiffness/specific strength regions for various materials classes see: http://​www-materials.​eng.​cam.​ac.​uk/​mpsite/​interactive_​charts/​spec-spec/​basic.​html

Fluorination has recently been used to attach amine-terminated polymers to the sidewalls of carbon nanotubes; for instance, see:a) Dillon, E. P.; Crouse, C. A.; Barron, A. R. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 156.b) Direct polymerization of poly(amidoamine), PAMAM, dendrimers directly from chlorocarbonyl- functionalized (-COCl) carbon nanotubes: Pan, B.; Cui, D.; Gao, F.; He, R. Nanotechnol. 2006, 17, 2483.

For a nice review regarding defect sites in CNTs, see Charlier, J.-C. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 1063.

For a thorough recent review of the surface chemistry (noncovalent and covalent) of CNTs, see Tasis, D.; Tagmatarchis, N.; Bianco, A.; Prato, M. Chem. Rev. 2006, 106, 1105.

A interesting recent precedent related to the reversibly tunable exfoliation of SWNTs using poly(acrylic acid) at varying pH levels is reported by Grunlan, J. C.; Liu, L.; Kim, Y. S. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 911.

Knupfer, M.; Reibold, M.; Bauer, H.-D.; Dunsch, L.; Golden, M. S.; Haddon, R. C.; Scuseria, G. E.; Smalley, R. E. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1997, 272, 38.

a) Itami, K. Pure Appl. Chem. 2012, 84, 907, and references therein. b) Nevius, M. S.; Wang, F.; Mathieu, C.; Barrett, N.; Sala, A.; Mentes, T. O.; Locatelli, A.; Conrad, E. H. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 6080. c) Han, P.; Akagi, K.; Canova, F. F.; Mutoh, H.; Shiraki, S.; Iwaya, K.; Weiss, P. S.; Asao, N.; Hitosugi, T. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 9181. d) Cai, J.; Ruffieux, P.; Jaafar, R.; Bieri, M.; Braun, T.; Blankenburg, S.; Muoth, M.; Seitsonen, A. P.; Saleh, M.; Feng, X.; Mullen, K.; Fasel, R. Nature 2010, 466, 470. e) Narita, A.; Verzhbitskly, I. A.; Frederickx, W.; Mall, K. S.; Jensen, S. A.; Hansen, M. R.; Bonn, M.; De Feyter, S.; Casiraghi, C.; Feng, X.; Mullen, K. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 11,622. f) Wang, W.; Wang, Y. X.; Yang, H. B. Org. Chem. Front. 2014, 1, 1005.

Although these metals have been confirmed to be suitable for CNT growth, it is now accepted that most any metal should catalyze the growth of carbon nanotubes. Hong, G.; Chen, Y.; Li, P.; Zhang, J. Carbon 2012, 50, 2067.

For a description of methods used to form surface-bound nanosized catalysts, see: a) Kind, H.; Bonard, J. –M.; Emmeneggar, C.; Nilsson, L. –O.; Hernadi, K.; Maillard-Schaller, E.; Schlapbach, L.; Forro, L.; Kern, K. Adv. Mat. 1999, 11, 1285. b) Huang, Z. P.; Xu, J. W.; Ren, Z. F.; Wang, J. H.; Siegal, M. P.; Provencio, P. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1998, 73, 3845. c) Bower, C.; Zhou, O.; Zhu, W.; Werder, D. J.; Jin, S. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2000, 77, 2767 d) Geng, J. et al. J. Phys. Chem. B 2004, 108, 18,447.

Rummeli, M. H.; Bachmatiuk, A.; Bornert, F.; Schaffel, F.; Ibrahim, I.; Cendrowski, K.; Simha-Martynkova, G.; Placha, D.; Borowiak-Palen, E.; Cuniberti, G.; Buchner, B. Nanosc. Res. Lett. 2011, 6:303, 1 (open access: https://​nanoscalereslett​.​springeropen.​com/​articles/​10.​1186/​1556-276X-6-303

Smalley, R. E. Discovering the Fullerenes, Nobel Lecture, 1996. May be found online at: http://​nobelprize.​org/​chemistry/​laureates/​1996/​smalley-lecture.​pdf (along with the Nobel lectures from Curl and Kroto).

Dai, H. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 1035.

For a nice review of strategies used for superhydrophobic coatings, see: Ma, M.; Hill, R. M. Curr. Opin. Coll. Interf. Sci. 2006, 11, 193.

Zhang, R.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Xie, H.; Qian, W.; Wei, F. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 6156.

a) Huang, S. M.; Woodson, M.; Smalley, R.; Liu, J. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 1025. b) Hofmann, M.; Nezich, D.; Reina, A.; Kong, J. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 4122. c) Huang, S.; Maynor, B.; Cai, X.; Liu, J. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 1651.

For a recent review of horizontally aligned carbon nanotube arrays, see: Zhang, R.; Zhang, Y.; Wei, F. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3661.

Zhang, M.; Li, J. Mater. Today 2009, 12, 12.

a) Zhong, G.; Hofmann, S.; Fan, F.; Telg, H.; Warner, J. H.; Eder, D.; Thomsen, C.; Milne, W. I.; Robertson, J. J. Phys. Chem. C, 2009, 113, 17,321. b) Meshot, E. R.; Plata, D. L.; Tawfick, S.; Zhang, Y.; Verploegen, E. A.; Hart, A. J. ACS Nano, 2009, 3, 2477.

Burt, D. P.; Whyte, W. M.; Weaver, J. M. R.; Glidle, A.; Edgeworth, J. P.; Macpherson, J. V.; Dobson, P. S. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 15,133, and references therein.

Nessim, G. D.; Acquaviva, D.; Seita, M.; O’Brien, K. P.; Thompson, C. V. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2010, 20, 1306.

Rao, C. N. R.; Govindaraj, A. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 998, and references therein. For recent information regarding the role of alumina on the yield/morphology of supported CNT catalysts, see: Jodin, L.; Dupuis, A.-C.; Rouviere, E.; Reiss, P. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 7328. It should be noted that the supported nanoclusters may reside within nanochannels to facilitate 1D growth, examples of these methods, which include both template and “closed space sublimation” (CSS) are (and references therein): (a) Li, J.; Papadopoulos, C.; Xu, J. M.; Moskovits, M. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1999, 75, 367. (b) Kyotani, T.; Tsai, L. F.; Tomita, A. Chem. Mater. 1996, 8, 2109. (c) Hu, Z. D.; Hu, Y. F.; Chen, Q.; Duan, X. F.; Peng, L.-M. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 8263.

Yu, D.; Xue, Y.; Dai, L. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2012, 3, 2863.

Choi, H. C.; Kim, W.; Wang, D.; Dai, H. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106, 12,361. The first precedent for SWNT growth from gold nanoclusters has been recently reported: Bhaviripudi, S.; Mile, E.; Steiner, S. A.; Zare, A. T.; Dresselhaus, M. S.; Belcher, A. M.; Kong, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 1516.

a) Lolli, G.; Zhang, L.; Balzano, L.; Sakulchaicharoen, N.; Tan, Y.; Resasco, D. E. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 2108. b) Bachilo, S. M.; Balzano, L.; Herrera, J. E.; Pompeo, F.; Resasco, D. E.; Weisman, R. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 11,186.

Chiang, W. H.; Sankaran, R. M. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 882.

Wang, B.; Poa, C. H. P.; Wei, L.; Li, L. J.; Yang, Y. H.; Chen, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 9014.

In 2009, researchers in China reported the longest SWNT, over 18.5 cm in length, grown using CVD from a CNT catalytic film: Wang, X.; Li, Q.; Xie, J.; Jin, Z.; Wang, J.; Li, Y.; Jiang, K.; Fan, S. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 3137.

Wagner, R. S.; Ellis, W. C. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1964, 4, 89. For a recent review of the solid–liquid–solid (SLS) and supercritical fluid–liquid–solid (SFLS) mechanisms for semiconductor nanowire growth, see: Wang, F.; Dong, A.; Sun, J.; Tang, R.; Yu, H.; Buhro, W. E. Inorg. Chem. 2006, 45, 7511. A recent precedent for the epitaxial growth of ZnO nanowires at the junction of nanowalls: Ng, H. T.; Li, J.; Smith, M. K.; Nguyen, P.; Cassell, A.; Han, J.; Meyyappan, M. Science 2003, 300, 1249.

A recent in situ TEM study of Si nanowire growth has been reported by Hofmann, S.; Sharma, R.; Wirth, C. T.; Cervantes-Sodi, F.; Ducati, C.; Kasama, T.; Dunin-Borkowski, R. E.; Drucker, J.; Bennett, P.; Robertson, J. Nature Mater. 2008, 7, 372.

Kharlamova, M. V. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2017, 8, 826.

An example for Au-Ge nanoalloys: Lu, H.; Meng, X. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5:11263, 1.

The word “generally” is used, since there are reports of nanowire growth at temperatures below the eutectic. For example, see: Adhikari, H.; Marshall, A. F.; Chidsey, E. D.; McIntyre, P. C. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 318.

A 25th anniversary review article on semiconductor nanowires: Dasgupta, N. P.; Sun, J.; Liu, C.; Brittman, S.; Andrews, S. C.; Lim, J.; Gao, H.; Yan, R.; Yang, P. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 2137.

The first precedent of solution-liquid-solid (SLS) growth of nanowires: Trentler, T. J.; Hickman, K. M.; Goel, S. C.; Viano, A. M.; Gibbons, P. C.; Buhro, W. E. Science, 1995, 270, 1791.

For instance, see: Paulose, M.; Varghese, O. K.; Grimes, C. A. J. Nanosci. Technol. 2003, 3, 341.

Lu, J.; Miao, J. Nanosc. Res. Lett. 2012, 7:356, 1.

Marchand, M. L.; Journet, C.; Guillot, D.; Benoit, J. M.; Yakobson, B. L.; Purcell, S. T. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 2961.

a) Harris, P. J. F. Carbon 2007, 45, 229. b) Gavillet, J.; Thibault, J.; Stephan, O.; Amara, H.; Loiseau, A.; Gaspard, J. P.; Ducastelle, F. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2004, 4, 346. c) Irle, S.; Ohta, Y.; Okamoto, Y.; Page, A. J.; Wang, Y.; Morokuma, K. Nano Res. 2009, 2, 755.

A review of growth mechanisms for CNTs: https://​cdn.​intechopen.​com/​pdfs-wm/​16802.​pdf

Hofmann, S.; Csanyi, G.; Ferrari, A. C.; Payne, M. C.; Robertson, J. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 95, 036101.

a) Huang, S.; Cai, Q.; Chen, J.; Qian, Y.; Zhang, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 2094, and references therein. b) Liu, B.; Ren, W.; Gao, L.; Li, S.; Pei, S.; Liu, C.; Jiang, C.; Cheng, H. -M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 2082.

Cantoro, M.; Hofmann, S.; Pisana, S.; Scardaci, V.; Parvez, A.; Ducati, C.; Ferrari, A. C.; Blackburn, A. M.; Wang, K.-Y.; Robertson, J. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 1107.

Page, A. J.; Chandrakumar, K. R. S.; Irle, S.; Morokuma, K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 621.

Persson, A. I.; Larsson, M. W.; Stenstrom, S.; Ohlsson, B. J.; Samuelson, L.; Wallenberg, L. R. Nat. Mater. 2004, 3, 677.

Deng, W.-Q.; Xu, X.; Goddard, W. A. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 2331.

It has been shown that reducing the catalyst size causes an increase in the growth rate, whereas varying the catalyst composition affects the growth rate, activation energy, and onset temperature for CNT growth: Chiang, W. -H.; Sankaran, R. M. Diam. Rel. Mater. 2009, 18, 946.

Considering a VLS growth mechanism, the catalyst nanocluster must be molten during nucleation. However, the growth temperature of carbonaceous nanostructures is much lower than the melting point of binary C/M systems (M = catalytic metals such as Fe, Ni, Co, etc.), which lends credence to the existence of “liquid-like” deformable nanoclusters during growth.

Graphite-encapsulated metal nanostructures are of increasing importance for magnetic applications such as high-density magnetic recording media; for example, see: Flahaut, E.; Agnoli, F.; Sloan, J.; O’Connor, C.; Green, M. L. H. Chem. Mater. 2002, 14, 2553, and references therein. Encapsulation dominates over CNT growth at low temperatures since the kinetic energy is not sufficient for graphitic islands to lift off the catalyst surface. Hence, encapsulation may easily be limited, which enhances CNT growth, by maintaining elevated temperatures. Experimental results also show that small catalyst nanoclusters (diameters <2 nm) are free of graphite encapsulation since they do not contain a sufficient number of dissolved C atoms. However, for metal nanostructures >3 nm in diameter, calculations suggest that graphite encapsulation is thermodynamically preferred over SWNT growth. This is confirmed by the empirical observation that SWNTs form only on catalyst particles with diameters <2 nm.

For example, see:a) Lin, M.; Tan, J. P. Y.; Boothroyd, C.; Loh, K. P.; Tok, E. S.; Foo, Y. -L. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 449. b) Yoshida, H.; Takeda, S.; Uchiyama, T.; Kohno, H.; Homma, Y. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2082.

Ding, F.; Harutyunyan, A. R.; Yakobson, B. I. Proc. Nat’l Acad. Sci. 2009, 106, 2506.

Using field-emission microscopy (FEM) to observe axial rotation and preferential adsorption of dimeric C₂ units during growth: Marchand, M.; Journet, C.; Guillot, D.; Benoit, J. -M.; Yakobson, B. I.; Purcell, S. T. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 2961.

Jin, S.; Bierman, M. J.; Morin, S. A. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2010, 1, 1472, and references therein.

Hofmann, S.; Sharma, R.; Ducati, C.; Du, G.; Mattevi, C.; Cepek, C.; Cantoro, M.; Pisana, S.; Parvez, A.; Cervantes-Sodi, F.; Ferrari, A. C.; Dunin-Borkowski, R.; Lizzit, S.; Petaccia, L.; Goldoni, A.; Robertson, J. Nano Lett. 2007, 602.

Lee, Y. H.; Kim, S. G.; Jund, P.; Tomanek, D. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1997, 78, 2393.

A recent paper by Hata et al. discusses the variables that govern highly-efficient carbon nanotube growth— an oxygen-containing “growth enhancer” (e.g., water, alcohols), and a carbon source not containing oxygen: Futaba, D. N.; Goto, J.; Yasuda, S.; Yamada, T.; Yumura, M.; Hata, K. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 4811.

Hata, K.; Futaba, D. N.; Mizuno, K.; Namai, T.; Yumura, M.; Iijima, S. Science 2004, 306, 1362. Some additional recent precedents for millimeter-tall SWNT carpets: a) Almkhelfe, H.; Li, X.; Rao, R.; Amama, P. B. Carbon, 2017, 116, 181. b) Chen, G.; Sakurai, S.; Yumura, M.; Hata, K.; Futaba, D. N. Carbon 2016, 107, 433.

Rummeli, M. H.; Borowiak-Palen, E.; Gemming, T.; Pichler, T.; Knupfer, M.; Kalbac, M.; Dunsch, L.; Jost, O.; Silva, S. R. P.; Pompe, W.; Buchner, B. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 1209.

Wang, Y.; Song, W.; Jiao, M.; Wu, Z.; Irle, S. Carbon 2017, 121, 292.

a) Visic, B.; Panchakarla, L. S.; Tenne, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 12,865.b) Goldberger, J.; Fan, R.; Yang, P. Acc. Chem. Res. 2006, 39, 239, and references therein.c) https://​link.​springer.​com/​content/​pdf/​10.​1007/​s11467-013-0326-8.​pdfd) Remskar, M. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 1497.

Lu, J. G.; Chang, P. C.; Fan, Z. Y. Mater. Sci. Eng. Rep. 2006, 52, 49.

a) Hulteen, J. C.; Martin, C. R. J. Mater. Chem. 1997, 7, 1075. b) Sander, M. S.; Cote, M. J.; Gu, W.; Kile, B. M.; Tripp, C. P. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 2052.

a) Kmentova, H.; Kment, S.; Wang, L.; Pausova, S.; Vaclavu, T.; Kuzel, R.; Han, H.; Hubicka, Z.; Zlamal, M.; Olejnicek, J.; Cada, M.; Krysa, J.; Zboril, R. Catal. Today 2017, 287, 130. b) Roy, P.; Berger, S.; Schmuki, P. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 2904.

For example, see: a) Wang, J. M.; Gao, L. J. Mater. Chem. 2003, 13, 2551. b) Liu, B.; Zeng, H. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 4430. c) Jia, C. J.; Sun, L. D.; Yan, Z. G.; You, L. P.; Luo, F.; Han, X. D.; Pang, Y. C.; Zhang, Z.; Yan, C. H. Angew. Chem. 2005, 117, 4402. d) Sander, M. S.; Cote, M. J.; Gu, W.; Kile, B. M.; Tripp, C. P. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 2052.e) Meng, F.; Gong, J.; Fan, Z.; Li, H.; Yuan, J. Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 4700.f) Niu, X.; Li, M.; Wu, B.; Li, H. J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. 2016, 27, 10,198.

For instance, see: Levard, C.; Rose, J.; Masion, A.; Doelsch, E.; Borschneck, D.; Olivi, L.; Dominici, C.; Grauby, O.; Woicik, J. C.; Bottero, J. Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 5862.

For reviews of halloysite nanotubes, see:a) Kamble, R.; Ghag, M.; Gaikawad, S.; Panda, B. K. J. Adv. Scient. Res. 2012, 3, 25. b) Du, M.; Guo, B.; Jia, D. Polym. Int. 2010, 59, 574. c) http://​www.​tandfonline.​com/​doi/​full/​10.​1080/​03602559.​2017.​1329436 d) Yuan, P.; Tan, D.; Annabi-Bergaya, F. Appl. Clay Sci. 2015, 112, 75.

a) Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K.; Morozov, S. V.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Dubonos, S. V.; Grigorieva, I. V.; Firsov, A. A. Science 2004, 306, 666. b) Novoselov, K. S.; Jiang, D.; Schedin, F.; Booth, T. J.; Khotkevich, V. V.; Morozov, S. V.; Geim, A. K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005, 102, 10,451.

http://​nobelprize.​org/​nobel_​prizes/​physics/​laureates/​2010/​

Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K.; Morozov, S. V.; Jiang, D.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Grigorieva, I. V.; Dubonos, S. V.; Firsov, A. A Nature 2005, 438, 197.

Berger, C.; Song, Z.; Li, X.; Wu, X.; Brown, N.; Naud, C.; Mayou, D.; Li, T.; Hass, J.; Marchenkov, A. N.; Conrad, E. H.; First, P. N.; de Heer, W. A. Science 2006, 312, 1191.

Bulk graphite oxide is best prepared from purified natural graphite using the Hummers method: Hummers, W. S. & Offeman, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1958, 80, 1339.

For the mechanical exfoliation of bulk graphene oxide into sheets within an aqueous medium, see: Stankovich, S.; Dikin, D. A.; Dommett, G. H. B.; Kohlhaas, K. M.; Zimney, E. J.; Stach, E. A.; Piner, R. D.; Nguyen, S. T.; Ruoff, R. S. Nature 2006, 442, 282.

a) He, H., Klinowski, J., Forster, M. & Lerf, A. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1998, 287, 53. b) Lerf, A.; He, H.; Forster, M.; Klinowski, J. J. Phys. Chem B 1998, 102, 4477.

For example, see: a) Tung, V. C.; Allen, M. J.; Yang, Y.; Kaner, R. B. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2009, 4, 25. b) Allen, M. J.; Fowler, J. D.; Tung, V. C.; Yang, Y.; Weiller, B. H.; Kaner, R. B. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 93, 193,119. c) Fowler, J. D.; Allen, M. J.; Tung, V. C.; Yang, Y.; Kaner, R. B.; Weiller, B. H. ACS Nano 2009, 3, 301.

a) Reina, A.; Jia, X.; Ho, J.; Nezich, D.; Son, H.; Bulovic, V.; Dresselhaus, M. S.; Kong, J. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 30. b) Kim, K. S.; Zhao, Y.; Jang, H.; Lee, S. Y.; Kim, J. M.; Kim, K. S.; Ahn, J. -H.; Kim, P.; Choi, J. -Y.; Hong, B. H. Nature 2009, 457, 706.

a) Kobayashi, T.; Bando, M.; Kimura, N.; Shimizu, K.; Kadono, K.; Umezu, N.; Miyahara, K.; Hayazaki, S.; Nagai, S.; Mizuguchi, Y.; Murakami, Y.; Hobara, D. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2013, 102, 023112. b) Bae, S.; Kim, H.; Lee, Y.; Xu, X.; Park, J. S.; Zheng, Y.; Balakrishnan, J.; Lei, T.; Kim, H. R.; Song, Y.; Kim, Y. J.; Kim, K. S.; Ozyilmaz, B.; Ahn, J. H.; Hong, B. H.; Iijima, S. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2010, 5, 574.

Xu, Y.; Bai, H.; Lu, G.; Li, C.; Shi, G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 5856.

Stankovich, S.; Piner, R. D.; Chen, X. Q.; Wu, N. Q.; Nguyen, S. T.; Ruoff, R. S. J. Mater. Chem. 2006, 16, 155.

Bon, S. B.; Valentini, L.; Verdejo, R.; Garcia Fierro, J. L.; Peponi, L.; Lopez-Manchado, M. A.; Kenny, J. M. Chem. Mater. 2009, 21, 3433.

The October 2014 issue of Nature Nanotechnology was focused on the applications for graphene: http://​www.​nature.​com/​nnano/​focus/​graphene-applications/​index.​html. Graphene is even being placed in sports footwear: https://​www.​inov-8.​com/​us/​?​_​_​_​store=​us

For example, see:a) http://​icmt.​illinois.​edu/​ICMT-talks/​20080114-Abanin-Talk.​pdf b) Toke, C.; Lammert, P. E.; Crespi, V. H.; Jain, J. K. Phys. Rev. B 2006, 74, 235,417. c) Novoselov, K. S.; Jiang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Morozov, S. V.; Stormer, H. L.; Zeitler, U.; Maan, J. C.; Boebinger, G. S.; Kim, P.; Geim, A. K. Science 2007, 315, 1379. d) Ozyilmaz, B.; Jarillo-Herrero, P.; Efetov, D.; Abanin, D. A.; Levitov, L. S.; Kim, P. Phys. ReV. Lett. 2007, 99, 186,804.

For instance, see: Bolotin, K. I.; Sikes, K. J.; Jiang, Z.; Klima, M.; Fudenberg, G.; Hone, J.; Kim, P.; Stormer, H. L. Solid State Commun. 2008, 146, 351.

Li, D.; Kaner, R. B. Science 2008, 320, 1170.

The term ‘zero-bandgap semiconductor’ should be distinguished from a metal, even though both of these materials exhibit zero bandgaps. Within a graphene sheet, the Dirac point represents the sole electronic state responsible for its electrical conductivity; in contrast, electrons in many other states within the vicinity of the Fermi level may participate in electrical conductivity.

http://​www-mtl.​mit.​edu/​researchgroups/​palacios/​graphene/​palacios.​htmlAmbipolarity is also shared by organic semiconductors: a) Chua, L. L.; Zaumseil, J.; Chang, J. F.; Ou, E. C. W.; Ho, P. K. H.; Sirringhaus, H.; Friend, R. H. Nature 2005, 434, 194. b) Meijer, E. J.; De Leeuw, D. M.; Setayesh, S.; van Veenendaal, E.; Huisman, B. H.; Blom, P. W. M.; Hummelen, J. C.; Scherf, U.; Klapwijk, T. M. Nat. Mater. 2003, 2, 678.

Zhang, Y.; Tang, T. -T.; Girit, C.; Hao, Z.; Martin, M. C.; Zettl, A.; Crommie, M. F.; Shen, Y. R.; Wang, F. Nature 2009, 459, 820.

Zhang, Y.; Tan, Y. W.; Stormer, H. L.; Kim, P. Nature 2005, 438, 201.

a) Son, Y. -W.; Cohen, M. L.; Louie, S. G. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 97, 216,803. b) Han, M. Y.; Ozyilmaz, B.; Zhang, Y.; Kim, P. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 98, 206,805.

http://​www.​lbl.​gov/​enews/​back-issues/​2007/​Feb/​SABLSelectZigzag​.​pdf

Kosynkin, D. V.; Higginbotham, A. L.; Sinitskii, A.; Lomeda, J. R.; Dimiev, A.; Price, B. K.; Tour, J. M. Nature 2009, 458, 872.

Jiao, L.; Zhang, L.; Wang, X.; Diankov, G.; Dai, H. Nature 2009, 458, 877.

a) Han, M. Y.; Oezyilmaz, B.; Zhang, Y.; Kim, P. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 98, 206,805. b) Chen, Z.; Lin, Y. -M.; Rooks, M. J.; Avouris, P. Physica E 2007, 40, 228.

Campos-Delgado, J. et al. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2773.

Yang, X.; Dou, X.; Rouhanipour, A.; Zhi, L.; Joachim Rader, H.; Mullen, K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 4216.

A special issue of Acc. Chem. Res. was devoted to 2-D nanomaterials, beyond graphene: Acc. Chem. Res. 2015, 48, 1.

Mak, K. F.; Lee, C.; Hone, J.; Heinz, T. F. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2010, 105, 136,805.

Liu, H.; Neal, A. T.; Ye, P. D. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 8563.

Mas-Balleste, R.; Gomez-Navarro, C.; Gomez-Herrero, J.; Zamora, F. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 20.

Feng, B.; Ding, Z.; Meng, S.; Yao, Y.; He, X.; Cheng, P.; Chen, L.; Wu, K. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 3507.

Radisavljevic, B.; Radenovic, A.; Brivio, J.; Biacometti, V.; Kis, A. Nature Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 147.

Tao, L.; Cinquanta, E.; Chiappe, D.; Grazianetti, C.; Fanciulli, M.; Dubey, M.; Molle, A.; Akinwande, D. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2015, 10, 227.

Novoselov, K. S.; Jiang, D.; Schedin, F.; Booth, T. J.; Khotkevich, V. V.; Morozov, S. V.; Geim, A. K. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2005, 102, 10,451.

Liu, H.; Neal, A. T.; Zhu, Z.; Luo, Z.; Xu, X.; Tomanek, D.; Ye, P. D. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 4033.

Naguib, M.; Gogotsi, Y. Acc. Chem. Res. 2015, 48, 128.

Naguib, M.; Mochalin, V. N.; Barsoum, M. W.; Gogotsi, Y. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 992.

For example, a battery rated at 3 V, when at 50% charge would still output a voltage close to 3 V; in contrast, a supercapacitor rated at 3 V would output exactly half of its maximum charge voltage, 1.5 V at 50% charge.

https://​sustdev.​unescap.​org/​Files/​China%20​Public_​Transportation_​Sector_​ultra-capacitor_​buses.​pdf

Energy density is defined as the energy stored in a battery per unit volume. Although this term may also be used for an energy storage device per unit mass, the term specific energy is preferred.

Although LiBs are currently popular for automotive and portable electronic applications, the research community is now shifting its focus to more Earth-abundant and sustainable materials such as Na-ion (NaB), Mg-ion, Al-ion, and their metal-air varieties, to address concerns with the worldwide availability of lithium reserves. For instance, see: a) Masse, R. C.; Uchaker, E.; Cao, G. Sci. China Mater. 2015, 58, 715. b) Larcher, D.; Tarascon, J. M. Nature Chem. 2015, 7, 19. c) Kim, S. W.; Seo, D. H.; Ma, X.; Ceder, G.; Kang, K. Adv. Energy Mater. 2012, 2, 710. d) Choi, J. W.; Aurbach, D. Nature Rev. Mater. 2016, 1, 16,013.

The performance specifications of the Tesla P100D are simply amazing: 0–60 mph in 2.3 seconds (“Ludicrous Mode”!); 680 hp. and 791 lb-ft of torque. However, the purported specs of the 2019 Tesla roadster are even more incredible: 0–60 in <2 s!

For detailed photos of the interior of the Tesla 100 kWh battery pack, see: https://​teslamotorsclub.​com/​tmc/​threads/​pics-info-inside-the-battery-pack.​34934/​

The “18,650” (i.e., 18 mm x 65 mm) Li-ion cell is larger than a typical AA alkaline cell: http://​s32.​postimg.​org/​usovzv16t/​Battery_​Comparison1.​jpg

Interestingly, a full charge would take 40 h using a standard 3 kW 3-pin plug (not even an option for these vehicles!); however, other charging options are available such as 9.5 h (240 V/48 A), 6.3 h (240 V/72 A), or even a 120 kW “supercharger” feature that allows for 1-h charging.

It should be noted that the current density (mA g⁻¹) is important to compare reported capacities of electrode materials. The lower the current density, the more time the Li⁺ ions have to intercalate/insert into the electrode material, resulting in a higher overall capacity. Whereas most research studies utilize current densities in the 50–500 mA g⁻¹ range, commercial rechargeable batteries must typically cycle in the A g⁻¹ range. The battery industry also most often refers to current densities as “C”; for instance, a 1C rate refers to the discharge current necessary to fully discharge the battery in 1 h, and so on.

The capacity of some alloying materials such as MX_y (M = Fe, Co, Cu, Ni, Bi; X = F, Cl; y = 2, 3), AgCl, LiCl, S, Se, Te, or I is expected to be much higher than intercalation compounds, with theoretical capacities >1000 mAh g⁻¹. For some recent reviews of materials being investigated for LiB and Na-ion battery cathodes, see:a) Nitta, N.; Wu, F.; Lee, J. T.; Yushin, G. Mater. Today 2015, 18, 252.b) Ellis, B. L.; Lee, K. T.; Nazar, L. F. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22, 691.c) Demirocak, D. E.; Srinivasan, S. S.; Stafanakos, E. K. Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 731.

For a review of nanostructured materials for LiB anode applications, see: Goriparti, S.; Miele, E.; De Angelis, F.; Di Fabrizio, E.; Zaccaria, R. P.; Capiglia, C. J. Power Sources 2014, 257, 421.

Chen, K. S.; Xu, R.; Luu, N. S.; Secor, E. B.; Hamamoto, K.; Li, Q.; Kim, S.; Sangwan, V. K.; Balla, I.; Guiney, L. M.; Seo, J. W. T.; Yu, X.; Liu, W.; Wu, J.; Wolverton, C.; Dravid, V. P.; Barnett, S. A.; Lu, J.; Amine, K.; Hersam, M. C. Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 2539.

Xiong, Z.; Yun, Y. S.; Jin, H. J. Materials 2013, 6, 1138.

For instance, see:a) Verma, P.; Maire, P.; Novak, P. Electrochim. Acta 2010, 55, 6332.b) Tasaki, K.; Goldberg, A.; Lian, J. J.; Walker, M.; Timmons, A.; Harris, S. J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2009, 156, A1019.

a) An, S. J.; Li, J.; Daniel, C.; Mohanty, D.; Nagpure, S.; Wood, D. L. Carbon 2016, 105, 52.b) https://​arxiv.​org/​pdf/​1210.​3672.​pdf

a) Xue, J. S.; Dahn, J. R. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1995, 142, 3668.b) Yazami, R.; Deschamps, M. J. Power Sources 1995, 54, 411.

Yoo, E.; Kim, J.; Hosono, E.; Zhou, H. S.; Kudo, T.; Honma, I. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2277.

Mo, Y. F.; Zhang, H. T.; Guo, Y. N. Mater. Lett. 2017, 205, 118.

Hassoun, J.; Bonaccorso, F.; Agostini, M.; Angelucci, M.; Betti, M. G.; Cingolani, R.; Gemmi, M.; Mariani, C.; Panero, S.; Pellegrini, V.; Scrosati, B. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 4901.

The Coulombic efficiency is the ratio of charging and discharging capacities for a particular cycle, reflecting the amount of Li that has been lost due to SEI formation. For instance, if the cell has a charging capacity of 850 mAh g⁻¹ and a discharging capacity of 620 mAh g⁻¹, the Coulombic efficiency would be 73% for that cycle.

Chen, J.; Yao, B.; Li, C.; Shi, G. Carbon 2013, 64, 225.

Mattevi, C.; Eda, G.; Agnoli, S.; Miller, S.; Mkhoyan, K. A.; Celik, O.; Mastrogiovanni, D.; Granozzi, G.; Garfunkel, E.; Chhowalla, M. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2009, 19, 2577.

a) Uthaisar, C.; Barone, V.; Peralta, J. E. J. Appl. Phys. 2009, 106, 113,715.b) Uthaisar, C.; Barone, V. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 2838.

Bhardwaj, T.; Antic, A.; Pavan, B.; Barone, V.; Fahlman, B. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 12,556.

Uthaisar, C.; Barone, V.; Fahlman, B. D. Carbon 2013, 61, 558.

Another recent report that shows the effect of oxygen-based functional groups on the interlayer spacing of graphene sheets, and enhanced Li capacity: Cheng, Q.; Okamoto, Y.; Tamura, N.; Tsuji, M.; Maruyama, S.; Matsuo, Y. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7:14782, 1

Chen, J. S.; Archer, L.; Lou, X. W. “SnO₂ Hollow Structures and TiO₂ Nanosheets for lithium-ion batteries.” J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21, 9912.

McDowell, M. T.; Lee, S. W.; Nix, W. D.; Cui, Y. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 4966.

Some recent reviews: a) Du, F. H.; Wang, K. X.; Chen, J. S.; J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 32. b) Mazouzi, D.; Karker, Z.; Reale, C.; Hernandez, C. R.; Manero, P. J.; Guyomard, D.; Roue, L. J. Power Sources 2015, 280, 533.

For instance: a) Park, M. H.; Kim, M. G.; Joo, J.; Kim, K.; Kim, J.; Ahn, S.; Cui, Y.; Cho, J. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 3844. b) Yoo, J. K.; Kim, J.; Jung, Y. S.; Kang, K. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 5452.

For example, see: a) Yao, Y.; McDowell, M. T.; Ryu, I.; Wu, H.; Liu, N.; Hu, L.; Nix, W. D.; Cui, Y. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 2949. b) Chen, D.; Mei, X.; Ji, G.; Lu, M.; Xie, J.; Lu, J.; Lee, J. Y. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 2012, 51, 2409.

For example, see: a) Ge, M.; Rong, J.; Fang, X.; Zhang, A.; Lu, Y.; Zhou, C. Nano Res. 2013, 6, 174. b) Bang, B. M.; Lee, J. I.; Kim, H.; Cho, J.; Park, S. Adv. Energy Mater. 2012, 2, 878.

For instance, see: a) Liu, N.; Lu, Z.; Zhao, J.; McDowell, M. T.; Lee, H. W.; Zhao, W.; Cui, Y. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2014, 9, 187. b) Su, L.; Xie, J.; Xu, Y.; Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Ren, M. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2015, 17, 17,562. c) Lee, W. H.; Kang, D. Y.; Kim, J. S.; Lee, J. K.; Moon, J. H. RSC Adv. 2015, 5, 17,424. d) Pan, L.; Wang, H.; Gao, D.; Chen, S.; Tan, L.; Li, L. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 5878. e) Park, Y.; Choi, N. S.; Park, S.; Woo, S. H.; Sim, S.; Jang, B. Y.; Oh, S. M.; Park, S.; Cho, J.; Lee, K. T. Adv. Energy Mater. 2013, 3, 206.

For example: a) Hwang, T. H.; Lee, Y. M.; Kong, B. S.; Seo, J. S.; Choi, J. W. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 802. b) Li, Y.; Guo, B.; Ji, L.; Lin, Z.; Xu, G.; Liang, Y.; Zhang, S.; Toprakci, O.; Hu, Y.; Alcoutlabi, M.; Zhang, X. Carbon 2013, 51, 185. c) Lee, B. S.; Son, S. B.; Park, K. M.; Seo, J. H.; Lee, S. H.; Choi, I. S.; Oh, K. H.; Yu, W. R. J. Power Sources 2012, 206, 267.

For instance, see: a) Wang, W.; Kumta, P. N. ACS Nano 2010, 4, 2233. b) Martin, C.; Crosnier, O.; Retoux, R.; Belanger, D.; Schleich, D. M.; Brousse, T. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2011, 21, 3524. c) Fan, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Xiao, Q.; Wang, X.; Huang, K. Carbon, 2013, 59, 264.

For example, see: a) Tang, H.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y. J.; Xiong, Q. Q.; Tong, Y. Y.; Li, Y.; Wang, X. L.; Gu, C. D.; Tu, J. P. J. Power Sources 2015, 286, 431. b) Xu, B.; Wu, H.; Lin, C. X.; Wang, B.; Zhang, Z.; Zhao, X. S. RSC Adv. 2015, 5, 30,624. c) Zhao, X.; Hayner, C. M.; Kung, M. C.; Kung, H. H. Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, 1, 1079. d) Xiang, H.; Zhang, K.; Ji, G.; Lee, J. Y.; Zou, C.; Chen, X.; Wu, J. Carbon 2011, 49, 1787.

For instance, see: a) Murugesan, S.; Harris, J. T.; Korgel, B. A.; Stevenson, K. J. Chem. Mater. 2012, 24, 1306. b) Yoo, S.; Lee, J. I.; Ko, S.; Park, S. Nano Energy 2013, 2, 1271.

For example, see: a) Guo, Z. P.; Wang, J. Z.; Liu, H. K.; Dou, S. X. J. Power Sources 2005, 146, 448. b) Wu, H.; Yu, G.; Pan, L.; Liu, N.; McDowell, M. T.; Bao, Z.; Cui, Y. Nat. Cummun. 2013, 4, 1943. c) Gu, M.; Xiao, X. C.; Liu, G.; Thevuthasan, S.; Baer, D. R.; Zhang, J. G.; Liu, J.; Browning, N. D.; Wang, C. M. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 3684.

Chaste, J.; Eichler, A.; Moser, J.; Ceballos, G.; Rurali, R.; Bachtold, A. Nature Nanotechnol. 2012, 7, 301.

Ginger, D. S.; Zhang, H.; Mirkin, C. A. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 30. This review contains all of the references for the various experimental conditions.

Yang, Y. T.; Callegari, C.; Feng, X. L.; Ekinci, K. L.; Roukes, M. L. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 583.

Collin, J.-P.; Dietrich-Buchecker, C.; Gavina, P.; Jimenez-Molero, M.; Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 477.

Geeves, M. A. Nature 2002, 415, 129.

Liu, Y.; Flood, A. H.; Bonvallet, P. A.; Vignon, S. A.; Northrop, B. H.; Tseng, H.-R.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Huang, T. J.; Brough, B.; Baller, M.; Magonov, S.; Solares, S. D.; Goddard, W. A.; Ho, C.-M.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 9745.