Top

Published in:

2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

13. Non-conventional Anaerobic Bioreactors for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment

Authors : Huu Hao Ngo, Mohd Atiqueuzzaman Khan, Wenshan Guo, Ashok Pandey, Duu-Jong Lee

Published in: Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies

Publisher: Springer Singapore

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

Conventional anaerobic bioreactors have proven to be useful for energy recovery and removing organic pollutants from wastewater. Unfortunately, the application of most conventional anaerobic systems is limited due to their applicability over a narrow range in substrate composition and single type of pollutant removal. The background of the research and development for non-conventional anaerobic bioreactors mainly includes design limitations, technical and economic issues along with environmental impacts from traditional systems. In this connection, the initial approach for developing non-conventional bioreactors included the improvement on existing conventional anaerobic bioreactors with pre- and post-treatment processes. As these improvements only increased the pollutant removal efficiency up to a certain level, research initiatives were carried out to develop non-conventional hybrid systems. These non-conventional bioreactors usually involve a combination of conventional biological system with physical/chemical treatment process to aid the removal of non-biodegradable pollutants. Recently developed non-conventional systems include the modifications in bioreactor designs such as bio-electrochemical systems, multistage bioreactor arrangements and hybrid anaerobic processes. Performance evaluation of these non-conventional anaerobic systems shows improved product yield and efficient pollutant removal compared to the traditional processes. The key findings from this discussion were listed in the conclusion section along with future insights for this technology.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

previous chapter From Conventional Activated Sludge Process to Membrane-Aerated Biofilm Reactors: Scope, Applications, and Challenges

next chapter Advances of Photobioreactors in Wastewater Treatment: Engineering Aspects, Applications and Future Perspectives

Abdelsalam E et al (2016) Comparison of nanoparticles effects on biogas and methane production from anaerobic digestion of cattle dung slurry. Renew Energy 87:592–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.10.053CrossRef

Alves M et al (1998) Staged and non-staged anaerobic filters: microbial activity segregation, hydrodynamic behaviour and performance. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 73(2):99–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(1998100)73:2%3c99:AID-JCTB934%3e3.0.CO;2-OCrossRef

Ariunbaatar J et al (2014) Pretreatment methods to enhance anaerobic digestion of organic solid waste. Appl Energy 123:143–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.035CrossRef

Asam Z-u-Z et al (2011) How can we improve biomethane production per unit of feedstock in biogas plants? Appl Energy 88(6):2013–2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.12.036CrossRef

Bakonyi P et al (2014) Fermentative hydrogen production in anaerobic membrane bioreactors: a review. Bioresour Technol 156:357–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.079CrossRef

Banel A, Zygmunt B (2011) Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry preceded by solvent extraction to determine volatile fatty acids in wastewater of municipal, animal farm and landfill origin. Water Sci Technol 63(4):590–597. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.204CrossRef

Bassani I et al (2015) Biogas upgrading via hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis in two-stage continuous stirred tank reactors at mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. Environ Sci Technol 49(20):12585–12593. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03451CrossRef

Battista F et al (2016) Selection of the best pretreatment for hydrogen and bioethanol production from olive oil waste products. Renew Energy 88:401–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.11.055CrossRef

Bohutskyi P et al (2015) Prospects for methane production and nutrient recycling from lipid extracted residues and whole Nannochloropsis salina using anaerobic digestion. Appl Energy 154:718–731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.05.069CrossRef

Brepols C (2010) Operating large scale membrane bioreactors for municipal wastewater treatment. IWA Publishing, London

Cesaro A, Belgiorno V (2013) Sonolysis and ozonation as pretreatment for anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste. Ultrason Sonochem 20(3):931–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2012.10.017CrossRef

Cusick RD et al (2011) Performance of a pilot-scale continuous flow microbial electrolysis cell fed winery wastewater. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 89(6):2053–2063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3130-9CrossRef

Cysneiros D et al (2012) The effect of pH control and ‘hydraulic flush’ on hydrolysis and volatile fatty acids (VFA) production and profile in anaerobic leach bed reactors digesting a high solids content substrate. Bioresour Technol 123:263–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.06.060CrossRef

Ding A et al (2016) Impact of applied voltage on methane generation and microbial activities in an anaerobic microbial electrolysis cell (MEC). Chem Eng J 283:260–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.07.054CrossRef

Ding A et al (2018) Impacts of applied voltage on microbial electrolysis cell-anaerobic membrane bioreactor (MEC-AnMBR) and its membrane fouling mitigation mechanism. Chem Eng J 333:630–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.09.190CrossRef

Elsamadony M, Tawfik A, Suzuki M (2015) Surfactant-enhanced biohydrogen production from organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) via dry anaerobic digestion. Appl Energy 149:272–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.127CrossRef

Fagbohungbe MO et al (2017) The challenges of anaerobic digestion and the role of biochar in optimizing anaerobic digestion. Waste Manag 61:236–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.028CrossRef

Gouveia J et al (2015) Long-term operation of a pilot scale anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) for the treatment of municipal wastewater under psychrophilic conditions. Biores Technol 185:225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.03.002CrossRef

Guo W, Ngo H-H, Li J (2012) A mini-review on membrane fouling. Biores Technol 122:27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.04.089CrossRef

Harris PW, McCabe BK (2015) Review of pre-treatments used in anaerobic digestion and their potential application in high-fat cattle slaughterhouse wastewater. Appl Energy 155:560–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.026CrossRef

Hassanein A et al (2017) Next generation digestion: complementing anaerobic digestion (AD) with a novel microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) design. Int J Hydrogen Energy 42(48):28681–28689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.10.003CrossRef

Huang L, Lee D-J (2015) Membrane bioreactor: a mini review on recent R&D works. Biores Technol 194:383–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.07.013CrossRef

Ince O (1998) Potential energy production from anaerobic digestion of dairy wastewater. J Environ Sci Health—Part A Toxic/Hazard Subst Environ Eng 33(6):1219–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529809376784CrossRef

Jadhav DA, Ghosh Ray S, Ghangrekar MM (2017) Third generation in bio-electrochemical system research—a systematic review on mechanisms for recovery of valuable by-products from wastewater. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 76:1022–1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.096CrossRef

Ji Z, Chen G, Chen Y (2010) Effects of waste activated sludge and surfactant addition on primary sludge hydrolysis and short-chain fatty acids accumulation. Bioresour Technol 101(10):3457–3462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.117CrossRef

Jiang S, Chen Y, Zhou Q (2007) Effect of sodium dodecyl sulfate on waste activated sludge hydrolysis and acidification. Chem Eng J 132(1–3):311–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2007.01.017CrossRef

Jurado E et al (2016) Continuous anaerobic digestion of swine manure: ADM1-based modelling and effect of addition of swine manure fibers pretreated with aqueous ammonia soaking. Appl Energy 172:190–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.03.072CrossRef

Kadier A et al (2016) Recent advances and emerging challenges in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) for microbial production of hydrogen and value-added chemicals. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 61:501–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.017CrossRef

Kadier A et al (2018) Surpassing the current limitations of high purity H2 production in microbial electrolysis cell (MECs): strategies for inhibiting growth of methanogens. Bioelectrochemistry 119:211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioelechem.2017.09.014CrossRef

Khan MA et al (2017) Biohydrogen production from anaerobic digestion and its potential as renewable energy. Renew Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.029CrossRef

Khan MA et al (2016) Comparing the value of bioproducts from different stages of anaerobic membrane bioreactors. Bioresour Technol 214:816–825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.05.013CrossRef

Khatri S et al (2015) Synergistic effect of alkaline pretreatment and Fe dosing on batch anaerobic digestion of maize straw. Appl Energy 158:55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.08.045CrossRef

Kleerebezem R et al (2015) Anaerobic digestion without biogas? Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technol 14(4):787–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-015-9374-6CrossRef

Kougias PG et al (2014) Anaerobic digestion foaming in full-scale biogas plants: a survey on causes and solutions. Water Sci Technol 69(4):889–895. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.792CrossRef

Krzeminski P et al (2017) Membrane bioreactors—a review on recent developments in energy reduction, fouling control, novel configurations, LCA and market prospects. J Membr Sci 527:207–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.12.010CrossRef

Kumar A, Pal D (2018) Antibiotic resistance and wastewater: correlation, impact and critical human health challenges. J Environ Chem Eng 6(1):52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.11.059CrossRef

Kundu K et al (2013) Carbon source—a strong determinant of microbial community structure and performance of an anaerobic reactor. J Biotechnol 168(4):616–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2013.08.023CrossRef

Lee D et al (2009) Effect of iron concentration on continuous H2 production using membrane bioreactor. Int J Hydrogen Energy 34(3):1244–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.11.093CrossRef

Lee WS et al (2014) A review of the production and applications of waste-derived volatile fatty acids. Chem Eng J 235:83–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.09.002CrossRef

Lemmer A et al (2015) Influence of different substrates on the performance of a two-stage high pressure anaerobic digestion system. Bioresour Technol 178:313–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.09.118CrossRef

Lindberg A, Rasmuson ÅC (2006) Selective desorption of carbon dioxide from sewage sludge for in situ methane enrichment—part I: pilot-plant experiments. Biotechnol Bioeng 95(5):794–803. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.21015CrossRef

Lindeboom REF et al (2011) Autogenerative high pressure digestion: anaerobic digestion and biogas upgrading in a single step reactor system. Water Sci Technol 64(3):647–653. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.664CrossRef

Lu L et al (2009) Hydrogen production with effluent from an ethanol–H2-coproducing fermentation reactor using a single-chamber microbial electrolysis cell. Biosens Bioelectron 24(10):3055–3060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2009.03.024CrossRef

Luo G et al (2010) Anaerobic treatment of cassava stillage for hydrogen and methane production in continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) under high organic loading rate (OLR). Int J Hydrogen Energy 35(21):11733–11737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.08.033CrossRef

Luo K et al (2011) Combined effect of sodium dodecyl sulfate and enzyme on waste activated sludge hydrolysis and acidification. Bioresour Technol 102(14):7103–7110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.04.023CrossRef

Mao C et al (2015) Review on research achievements of biogas from anaerobic digestion. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 45:540–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.032CrossRef

Mars AE et al (2010) Biohydrogen production from untreated and hydrolyzed potato steam peels by the extreme thermophiles Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus and Thermotoga neapolitana. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35(15):7730–7737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.05.063CrossRef

Martínez Arranz A (2016) Hype among low-carbon technologies: Carbon capture and storage in comparison. Glob Environ Change 41:124–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.09.001CrossRef

Martinez-Sosa D et al (2011) Anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) for municipal wastewater treatment under mesophilic and psychrophilic temperature conditions. Biores Technol 102(22):10377–10385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.09.012CrossRef

Merkle W et al (2017) High-pressure anaerobic digestion up to 100 bar: influence of initial pressure on production kinetics and specific methane yields. Environ Technol (United Kingd) 38(3):337–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2016.1192691CrossRef

Mohanakrishna G, Venkata Mohan S, Sarma PN (2010) Utilizing acid-rich effluents of fermentative hydrogen production process as substrate for harnessing bioelectricity: An integrative approach. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35(8):3440–3449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.01.084CrossRef

Molinuevo-Salces B et al (2012) Vegetable processing wastes addition to improve swine manure anaerobic digestion: evaluation in terms of methane yield and SEM characterization. Appl Energy 91(1):36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.09.010CrossRef

Moon C et al (2015) Effect of the accuracy of pH control on hydrogen fermentation. Bioresour Technol 179:595–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.128CrossRef

Nakamura Y, Mtui G (2003) Anaerobic fermentation of woody biomass treated by various methods. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 8(3):179–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02935893CrossRef

Nualsri C, Reungsang A, Plangklang P (2016) Biochemical hydrogen and methane potential of sugarcane syrup using a two-stage anaerobic fermentation process. Ind Crops Prod 82:88–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.12.002CrossRef

Pachiega R et al (2018) Hydrogen bioproduction with anaerobic bacteria consortium from brewery wastewater. Int J Hydrogen Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.02.107

Paul S, Dutta A (2018) Challenges and opportunities of lignocellulosic biomass for anaerobic digestion. Resour Conserv Recycl 130:164–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.12.005CrossRef

Pretel R et al (2013) Environmental impact of submerged anaerobic MBR (SAnMBR) technology used to treat urban wastewater at different temperatures. Biores Technol 149:532–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.09.060CrossRef

Rafieenia R, Lavagnolo MC, Pivato A (2018) Pre-treatment technologies for dark fermentative hydrogen production: current advances and future directions. Waste Manag 71:734–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.05.024CrossRef

Rajesh Banu J et al (2008) Treatment of dairy wastewater using anaerobic and solar photocatalytic methods. Sol Energy 82(9):812–819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2008.02.015CrossRef

Richards BK et al (1994) In situ methane enrichment in methanogenic energy crop digesters. Biomass Bioenerg 6(4):275–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/0961-9534(94)90067-1CrossRef

Rodriguez-Mozaz S et al (2015) Pharmaceuticals and pesticides in reclaimed water: efficiency assessment of a microfiltration–reverse osmosis (MF–RO) pilot plant. J Hazard Mater 282:165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.09.015CrossRef

Ruigómez I et al (2016) Pilot plant study of a new rotating hollow fibre membrane module for improved performance of an anaerobic submerged MBR. J Membr Sci 514:105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.04.061CrossRef

Saifuddin N, Fazlili SA (2009) Effect of microwave and ultrasonic pretreatments on biogas production from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent. Am J Eng Appl Sci 2(1):139–146. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajeas.2009.139.146CrossRef

Sarkar O, Venkata Mohan S (2017) Pre-aeration of food waste to augment acidogenic process at higher organic load: valorizing biohydrogen, volatile fatty acids and biohythane. Bioresour Technol 242:68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.053CrossRef

Sarker S et al (2018) Overview of recent progress towards in-situ biogas upgradation techniques. Fuel 226:686–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.021CrossRef

Sharma Y, Li B (2010) Optimizing energy harvest in wastewater treatment by combining anaerobic hydrogen producing biofermentor (HPB) and microbial fuel cell (MFC). Int J Hydrogen Energy 35(8):3789–3797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.01.042CrossRef

Shin C et al (2014) Pilot-scale temperate-climate treatment of domestic wastewater with a staged anaerobic fluidized membrane bioreactor (SAF-MBR). Bioresour Technol 159:95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.060CrossRef

Sun M et al (2008) An MEC-MFC-coupled system for biohydrogen production from acetate. Environ Sci Technol 42(21):8095–8100. https://doi.org/10.1021/es801513cCrossRef

Tangkathitipong P et al (2017) Separate production of hydrogen and methane from biodiesel wastewater with added glycerin by two-stage anaerobic sequencing batch reactors (ASBR). Renew Energy 113:1077–1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.06.056CrossRef

Thorin E et al (2012) Performance optimization of the Växtkraft biogas production plant. Appl Energy 97:503–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.03.007CrossRef

Wang S et al (2009) Performance and kinetic evaluation of anaerobic moving bed biofilm reactor for treating milk permeate from dairy industry. Biores Technol 100(23):5641–5647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.06.028CrossRef

Wang A et al (2011) Integrated hydrogen production process from cellulose by combining dark fermentation, microbial fuel cells, and a microbial electrolysis cell. Biores Technol 102(5):4137–4143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.10.137CrossRef

Wu T et al (2013) Hydrogen production with effluent from an anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) using a single-chamber microbial electrolysis cell (MEC). Int J Hydrogen Energy 38(25):11117–11123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.03.029CrossRef

Xia A, Cheng J, Murphy JD (2016a) Innovation in biological production and upgrading of methane and hydrogen for use as gaseous transport biofuel. Biotechnol Adv 34(5):451–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.12.009CrossRef

Xia A et al (2016b) Production of hydrogen, ethanol and volatile fatty acids through co-fermentation of macro- and micro-algae. Bioresour Technol 205:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.01.025CrossRef

Xiao Y et al (2017) Removal of selected pharmaceuticals in an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) with/without powdered activated carbon (PAC). Chem Eng J 321:335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.03.118CrossRef

Xu S et al (2015) Comparing activated carbon of different particle sizes on enhancing methane generation in upflow anaerobic digester. Biores Technol 196:606–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.018CrossRef

Yuan H, Zhu N (2016) Progress in inhibition mechanisms and process control of intermediates and by-products in sewage sludge anaerobic digestion. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 58:429–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.261CrossRef

Zhang J et al (2013) Effects of ferric iron on the anaerobic treatment and microbial biodiversity in a coupled microbial electrolysis cell (MEC)—anaerobic reactor. Water Res 47(15):5719–5728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.056CrossRef

Zhang Y et al (2015) A physicochemical method for increasing methane production from rice straw: extrusion combined with alkali pretreatment. Appl Energy 160:39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.09.011CrossRef

Zhang X et al (2017a) Simultaneous nitrification/denitrification and stable sludge/water separation achieved in a conventional activated sludge process with severe filamentous bulking. Biores Technol 226:267–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.047CrossRef

Zhang H, Jiang W, Cui H (2017b) Performance of anaerobic forward osmosis membrane bioreactor coupled with microbial electrolysis cell (AnOMEBR) for energy recovery and membrane fouling alleviation. Chem Eng J 321:375–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.03.134CrossRef

Zhen G et al (2015) Mesophilic anaerobic co-digestion of waste activated sludge and Egeria densa: performance assessment and kinetic analysis. Appl Energy 148:78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.038CrossRef

Zheng X et al (2018) Increasing municipal wastewater BNR by using the preferred carbon source derived from kitchen wastewater to enhance phosphorus uptake and short-cut nitrification-denitrification. Chem Eng J 344:556–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.03.124CrossRef

Zhong J, Stevens DK, Hansen CL (2015) Optimization of anaerobic hydrogen and methane production from dairy processing waste using a two-stage digestion in induced bed reactors (IBR). Int J Hydrogen Energy 40(45):15470–15476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.09.085CrossRef

Zielińska M et al (2013) Impact of temperature, microwave radiation and organic loading rate on methanogenic community and biogas production during fermentation of dairy wastewater. Biores Technol 129:308–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.11.093CrossRef

Title: Non-conventional Anaerobic Bioreactors for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment
Authors: Huu Hao Ngo
Mohd Atiqueuzzaman Khan
Wenshan Guo
Ashok Pandey
Duu-Jong Lee
Publisher: Springer Singapore
Book: Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-3258-6

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-13-3259-3

Copyright Year: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3259-3_13