1 Living Close to Nature and Subjective Well-being
1.1 Norway: A Naturally Happy Country?
1.2 Study Aims and Hypotheses
2 Methods
2.1 Participants and Procedures
2.2 Measures
2.2.1 Proximity to Outdoor Spaces
2.2.2 Frequency of moderate-to-vigorous intensity leisure-time physical activity (MVLTPA)
2.2.3 Subjective Well-being
2.2.4 Confounder Variables
2.3 Statistical Analyses
3 Results
Variable | M ± SD or n (Valid %) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
2020 | 2021 | |||
Immigration background | 2457 | (14.2) | 2350 | (13.4) |
Gender (% females) | 8611 | (49.7) | 8750 | (49.8) |
Age | 48.14 | ± 18.43 | 48.35 | ± 18.54 |
18–24 years old | 1978 | (11.4) | 1938 | (11) |
25–44 years old | 5881 | (33.9) | 6017 | (34.2) |
45–66 years old | 6117 | (35.3) | 6186 | (35.2) |
67–79 years old | 2464 | (14.2) | 2459 | (14) |
Over 80 years old | 884 | (5.1) | 980 | (5.6) |
Education level | ||||
Primary and secondary school (≤ 10 years of education) | 5909 | (35.7) | 4124 | (25.4) |
High school (up to 13 years of education) | 5104 | (30.9) | 6191 | (38.1) |
University college/university (≥ bachelor’s degree) | 5520 | (33.4) | 5940 | (36.5) |
Employment status (% employed) | 11,541 | (66.8) | 12,068 | (68.9) |
Difficult economic capability a (Economic solvency) | 3693 | (21.4) | 3319 | (19) |
Living with a spouse or partner (Relationship) | 11,509 | (66.5) | 11,607 | (66.1) |
Urbanicity | ||||
≥ 100,000 inhabitants | 6267 | (36.6) | 6512 | (37.5) |
20,000–99,999 inhabitants | 2533 | (14.8) | 2666 | (15.3) |
2,000–19,999 inhabitants | 3755 | (21.9) | 3664 | (21.1) |
200–1,999 inhabitants | 1536 | (9) | 1497 | (8.6) |
< 200 inhabitants | 3027 | (17.7) | 3048 | (17.5) |
Outdoor spaces | ||||
Having recreation areas within 200 m | 15,180 | (87.8) | 15,420 | (88) |
Having hiking areas within 500 m | 15,144 | (87.5) | 15,554 | (88.7) |
Leisure time physical activity (1–5) | 3.47 | ± 1.07 | 3.48 | ± 1.08 |
1. Never | 912 | (5.3) | 936 | (5.3) |
2. Rarely | 2943 | (17) | 2940 | (16.7) |
3. Monthly | 2610 | (15.1) | 2714 | (15.5) |
4. Weekly | 8757 | (50.6) | 8697 | (49.6) |
5. Daily | 2093 | (12.1) | 2264 | (12.9) |
Positive affect (0–10) | 6.54 | ± 1.98 | 6.37 | ± 2 |
Negative affect (0–10) | 3.10 | ± 2.12 | 3.16 | ± 2.18 |
Satisfaction with life (1–7) | 5.11 | ± 1.32 | 4.97 | ± 1.34 |
Mental well-being (1–5) | 3.78 | ± 0.67 | 3.70 | ± 0.69 |
Meaning in life (0–10) | 7.09 | ± 2.06 | 6.72 | ± 2.16 |
Variable | Subjective well-being | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Satisfaction with life | Positive affect | Negative affect | Mental well-being | Meaning in life | |||||||||||
B (β) | 95% CI | p | B (β) | 95% CI | p | B (β) | 95% CI | p | B (β) | 95% CI | p | B (β) | 95% CI | p | |
Constant | 2.13 | [2.04, 2.22] | < 0.001 | 2.72 | [2.58, 2.86] | < 0.001 | 6.44 | [6.28, 6.59] | < 0.001 | 2.27 | [2.22, 2.32] | < 0.001 | 2.29 | [2.14, 2.45] | < .001 |
Immigration background (RC = No) | .10 (.02) | [.06, .15] | < .001 | .08 (.01) | [.01, .15] | .02 | .02 (.00) | [−.06, .09] | .664 | .01 (.01) | [−.01, .04] | .217 | .42 (.06) | [.35, .49] | < .001 |
Gender (RC = Male) | .15 (.06) | [.13, .18] | < .001 | −.02 (−.00) | [−.06, .03] | .449 | .41 (.10) | [.36, .45] | < .001 | .04 (.03) | [.02, .05] | < .001 | .20 (.05) | [.16, .24] | < .001 |
Age (RC = 18–24 years old) | |||||||||||||||
25–44 years old | −.24 (−.08) | [−.29, −.19] | < .001 | −.03 (−.01) | [−.10, .05] | .481 | −.09 (−.02) | [−.17, −.01] | .026 | .05 (.03) | [.02, .07] | < .001 | .07 (.02) | [−.01, .15] | .066 |
45–66 years old | −.17 (−.06) | [−.22, −.12] | < .001 | .33 (.08) | [.26, .41] | < .001 | −.65 (−.15) | [−.72, −.57] | < .001 | .20 (.14) | [.18, .23] | < .001 | .50 (.11) | [.43, .58] | < .001 |
67–79 years old | .15 (.04) | [.10, .21] | < .001 | .61 (.11) | [.52, .70] | < .001 | −1.21 (−.20) | [−1.30, −1.12] | < .001 | .40 (.21) | [.37, .43] | < .001 | 1.01 (.17) | [.92, .1.11] | < .001 |
> 80 years old | .33 (.06) | [.26, .40] | < .001 | .32 (.04) | [.20, .43] | < .001 | −1.23 (−.13) | [−1.35, −1.11] | < .001 | .38 (.13) | [.34, .42] | < .001 | 1.03 (.11) | [.91, 1.14] | < .001 |
Education level (RC = Primary education) | |||||||||||||||
High school | .07 (.03) | [.04, .10] | < .001 | .05(.01) | [.00, .10] | .047 | −.08 (−.02) | [−.14, −.03] | .003 | .04 (.03) | [.03, .06] | < .001 | .07 (.02) | [.02, .12] | .008 |
University | .20 (.07) | [.16, .23] | < .001 | .05 (.01) | [−.00, .10] | .083 | −.06 (−.01) | [−.12, .00] | .05 | .04 (.03) | [.03, .06] | < .001 | .20 (.04) | [.14, .25] | < .001 |
Employment status (RC = Unemployed) | .34 (.12) | [.31, .38] | < .001 | .45 (.11) | [.40, .51] | < .001 | −.15 (−.03) | [−.21, −.10] | < .001 | .14 (.09) | [.12, .15] | < .001 | .72 (.16) | [.66, .77] | < .001 |
Economic solvency (Continuous, 6 levels) | .33 (.33) | [.32, .35] | < .001 | .38 (.24) | [.36, .39] | < .001 | −.42 (−.26) | [−.44, −.41] | < .001 | .15 (.28) | [.14, .15] | < .001 | .39 (.24) | [.37, .40] | < .001 |
Relationship (RC = No) | .53 (.19) | [.50, .56] | < .001 | .31 (.07) | [.27, .36] | < .001 | −.24 (−.05) | [−.29, −.19] | < .001 | .14 (.10) | [.12, .15] | < .001 | .59 (.13) | [.54, .64] | < .001 |
Urbanicity (RC = ≥ 100,000 inhabitants) | |||||||||||||||
99,999–20,000 inhabitants | .00 (.00) | [−.04, .04] | .965 | .03 (.01) | [−.03, .09] | .343 | −.04 (−.01) | [−.10, .03] | .270 | .02 (.01) | [−.00, .04] | .073 | .05 (.01) | [−.01, .11] | .131 |
19,999–2,000 inhabitants | .03 (.01) | [.00, .07] | .05 | .02 (.00) | [−.04, .07] | .524 | −.09 (−.02) | [−.14, −.03] | .004 | .02 (.01) | [.00, .04] | .036 | .09 (.02) | [.03, .14] | .003 |
1,999–200 inhabitants | .08 (.02) | [.03, .13] | < .001 | .16 (.02) | [.08, .23] | < .001 | −.22 (−.03) | [−.30, −.14] | < .001 | .04 (.02) | [.02, .07] | < .001 | .20 (.03) | [.12, .27] | < .001 |
< 200 inhabitants | .07 (.02) | [.03, .11] | < .001 | .11 (.02) | [.05, .17] | < .001 | −.22 (−.04) | [−.28, −.16] | < .001 | .06 (.03) | [.04, .08] | < .001 | .27 (.05) | [.21, .33] | < .001 |
Survey year (RC = 2020) | −.18 (−.07) | [−.21, −.16] | < .001 | −.21 (−.05) | [−.25, −.17] | < .001 | .09 (.02) | [.05, .14] | < .001 | −.14 (−.10) | [−.18, −.10] | < .001 | −.59 (−.14) | [−.72, −.47] | < .001 |
Recreation areas (RC = No) | .24 (.06) | [.20, .28] | < .001 | .32 (.05) | [.25, .38] | < .001 | −.28 (−.04) | [−.35, −.21] | < .001 | .13 (.06) | [.11, .16] | < .001 | .41 (.06) | [.35, .48] | < .001 |
Hiking areas (RC = No) | .12 (.03) | [.08, .16] | < .001 | .21 (.03) | [.14, .27] | < .001 | −.11 (−.02) | [−.18, .04] | .002 | .06 (.03) | [.03, .09] | < .001 | .10 (.02) | [.01, .19] | .035 |
Leisure time physical activity (RC = Never) | |||||||||||||||
Rarely | .36 (.10) | [.30, .42] | < .001 | .63 (.12) | [.53, .74] | < .001 | −.24 (−.04) | [−.35, −.14] | < .001 | .21 (.11) | [.17, .24] | < .001 | .78 (.14) | [.67, .88] | < .001 |
Monthly | .49 (.13) | [.42, .55] | < .001 | .82 (.15) | [.71, .92] | < .001 | −.35 (−.06) | [−.46, −.24] | < .001 | .28 (.15) | [.24, .31] | < .001 | .98 (.17) | [.88, 1.09] | < .001 |
Weekly | .59 (.22) | [.53, .65] | < .001 | 1.03 (.26) | [.94, 1.13] | < .001 | −.54 (−.13) | [−.64, −.44] | < .001 | .34 (.25) | [.31, .37] | < .001 | 1.18 (.28) | [1.08, 1.27] | < .001 |
Daily | .67 (.17) | [.60, .74] | < .001 | 1.30 (.22) | [1.19, 1.40] | < .001 | −.67 (−.10) | [−.78, −.55] | < .001 | .41 (.20) | [.37, .44] | < .001 | 1.37 (.21) | [1.26, 1.48] | < .001 |
Effect change: Survey year by hiking areas | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | .05 (.03) | [.00, .09] | .033 | .19 (.05) | [.06, .32] | .004 |
Full model statistics | R2 = .26, F = 509.71 | < .001 | R2 = .16, F = 273.80 | < .001 | R2 = .17, F = 304.12 | < .001 | R2 = .22, F = 401.15 | < .001 | R2 = .21, F = 382.55 | < .001 |
Variable | OR’s and Wald’s p test, and Likelihood Ratio p test | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Daily | Weekly | Monthly | Rarely | p (LR) | |||
Intercept | .89 | .91 | .46*** | .90 | |||
Immigration background (RC = No) | .74*** | .52*** | .62*** | .84* | < .001 | ||
Gender (RC = Male) | .77*** | 1.04 | 1.02 | .94 | < .001 | ||
Age (RC = 18–24 years old) | < .001 | ||||||
25–44 years old | .37*** | .59*** | .70*** | .96 | |||
45–66 years old | .47*** | .73** | .59*** | 1.04 | |||
67–79 years old | .43*** | .69*** | .43*** | .94 | |||
> 80 years old | .14*** | .19*** | .15 *** | .39*** | |||
Education level (RC = Primary education) | < .001 | ||||||
High school | 1.52*** | 1.66*** | 1.66*** | 1.30*** | |||
University | 2.86*** | 3.34*** | 2.69*** | 1.54*** | |||
Employment status (RC = Unemployed) | 1.25** | 1.72*** | 1.98*** | 1.45*** | < .001 | ||
Economic solvency (RC = Very challenging) | < .001 | ||||||
Challenging | 1.25 | 1.95*** | 1.79*** | 1.57*** | |||
Somewhat challenging | 1.53** | 2.90*** | 2.19*** | 2.15*** | |||
Somewhat easy | 2.46*** | 4.48*** | 3.32*** | 2.44*** | |||
Easy | 2.83*** | 4.56*** | 2.92*** | 2.05*** | |||
Very easy | 2.86*** | 4.24*** | 2.38*** | 1.61*** | |||
Relationship (RC = No) | 1.21** | 1.48*** | 1.59*** | 1.43*** | < .001 | ||
Urbanicity (RC = ≥ 100,000 inhabitants) | < .001 | ||||||
99,999–20,000 inhabitants | 1.03 | 1.01 | 1.23* | 1.01 | |||
19,999–2,000 inhabitants | 1.07 | 1.12 | 1.16 | 1.14 | |||
1,999–200 inhabitants | 1.07 | 1.12 | 1.25* | 1.06 | |||
< 200 inhabitants | 1.35*** | 1.17 | 1.34*** | 1.19* | |||
Survey year (RC = 2020) | .63** | .64*** | .60*** | .67** | .004 | ||
Recreation areas (RC = No) | 1.22 | 1.42*** | 1.21 | 1.05 | < .001 | ||
Hiking areas (RC = No) | 1.56*** | 1.39*** | 1.26** | 1.22* | < .001 | ||
Effect change: Survey year by recreation areas a | 1.63** | 1.38* | 1.60** | 1.46** | .016 | ||
Change − 2LL | 3280.08 | df = 92 | p < .001 | ||||
Goodness of fit b | 40698.75 | df = 35,124 | p < .001 |