Introduction
Theoretical background
PPR framework: categorising the involved psychosocial and physical aspects
Aspect | Description |
---|---|
Psychosocial learning environment | |
Personal development | Directions of personal growth and self-enhancement |
Open-endedness | The extent to which learning is oriented on predefined, uniform learning products or on an open-ended, personalised learning processes |
Relevance and integration | The extent to which the learning content is segregated into subject matters, or integrated in a multidisciplinary context, with a recognisable relevance and connection with the students’ world |
Environmental interaction | The extent to which the school’s environment is involved in the learning process and learning outcomes |
Relationships | Nature and intensity of personal relationships within the learning environment |
Teacher support | The extent to which the teacher is interested in—and responds to—students’ learning needs |
Student cooperation | The extent to which students collaborate in constructing knowledge by discussing and assessing the viability of ideas with peers |
Group cohesiveness | The extent to which students mutually respect each other, are friendly and supportive, know each other/feel known, connected and accepted |
Student involvement | The extent to which students pay attentive interest to, participate in, and enjoy the learning activities |
System maintenance & change | Educational system’s maintenance and responsiveness to change |
Shared control | The extent to which students share or have the control over their learning activities’ organisation and execution |
Order and organisation | The extent to which—and the way how—the learning process is organised and facilitated |
Physical learning environment | |
Naturalness | Environmental aspects affecting physical comfort and well-being |
Light | The extent to which natural and artificial light contribute to health and well-being |
Sound | The extent to which sound level and acoustics contribute to health and well-being |
Temperature | The extent to which air temperature contributes to health and well-being |
Air quality | The extent to which air contamination/freshness contributes to health and well-being |
Links to nature | The extent to which views, access to nature contribute to health and well-being |
Individualisation | Functional aspects supporting the learning and teaching activities of students and teachers |
Fitness | The extent to which the PLE is suitable and usable, appropriately supporting the teaching and learning activities |
Flexibility | The extent to which the PLE supports the (unpredictable) change of teaching and learning activities, including the effort to change |
Connection | The extent to which the PLE’s configuration and connections hinders or stimulates interactions between users and their teaching and learning activities |
Personalisation | The extent to which the PLE can be personalised, making the PLE distinctive and recognisably linked to the user or user group(s) |
Stimulation | Configurational and aesthetic aspects stimulating learning behaviour |
Expression | The degree to which the PLE's appearance evokes certain behaviour |
Complexity | The degree to which the complexity of the design of the PLE evokes certain mood/feeling |
Colours | The degree to which the colours used evoke a specific mood and/or behaviour |
PLE fitness, flexibility, connections and personalisation: what empirical research indicates
Fitness
Flexibility
Connection
Personalisation
Conclusions from empirical research
Current study
Aim
Research questions
Methodology
Context of the study
Selection of PLEs
Selection of respondents
Case | Team staff | Teacher | Student |
---|---|---|---|
A | – | 3 | 2 |
B | – | 2 | 3 |
C | 2 | 4 | 3 |
D | 1 | 2 | 3 |
E | 1 | 2 | 2 |
F | 2 | 3 | 3 |
Interviews
Analysis
PLE fitness, flexibility, connections and personalisation: what teachers and students tell us
Fitness
Capacity and ergonomics: as in education, the space must be tailored to students and their activities
Regarding collaborative settings, both teachers and students mentioned that knowledge sharing and knowledge construction is strongly enhanced by the availability of writable surfaces and displays.I’ve had someone presenting here once and it was completely packed with 120 people, crammed like sardines, but it fitted. When applying a collaborative setting with several groups, then with 25–30 people, we reach the max. of what fits.
Everyone sits on the same chair, comfortable and adjustable to one’s characteristics. Not only our educational but also our physical environment has to be designed according to the principle that every student is unique.
Congruency: you cannot not participate in physical innovative settings
Interviewees associate visibility with participants’ view direction, influencing students’ involvement. Students and teachers mention that, in traditional furniture arrangements, visual interactions between participants are limited, stimulating passive audience behaviour:You cannot ‘not communicate’ in a physical environment, such as you can in virtual meeting: turn off the webcam and mic. Seeing is essential, but actually feeling is much more important.
In contrast, students and teachers experience that concentric arrangements, without any physical separation between the participants, lead to more interaction. As a teacher said:In open learning spaces, it is much easier to cooperate than in a traditional classroom with a bus arrangement. Then you are actually working individually and listening to one person.
The interviewees indicate that the relative physical positioning—regarding height difference, distance and the like—also influences the psychosocial positions, which can be reinforced by the furnishing, such as tables’ form and seating arrangement that indicate positions and roles of participants:For social interaction, we position students in a circular arrangement without tables in front of them, forcing them to be open to each other. Sitting behind a table makes them immediately more reserved.
In addition, the interviewees perceive that the type of seating influences the sitting posture and thus behaviour. With informal seating, people sit back, associated with a relaxed posture that befits informal discussions and idea-forming. With formal seating, people sit upright, associated with an alert attitude, as befits formal discussions and presentations for which attention and active participation are expected. Regarding the furniture arrangement, the teachers mention that the furniture arrangement’s ‘congruency’ with the intended behaviour is more important than in traditional pedagogies. They perceive that, unlike traditional pedagogy, innovative pedagogy requires psychosocial interaction as one of the most-important elements and that physical positioning has impact on those psychosocial interactions:I take a central position at a rectangular table’s short side when I have to lead the discussion. With square or round tables there is always someone sitting next to you, in an equal position.
If you have a lecture, the type of furniture arrangement is actually not that relevant. But if you want to observe how the students actually collaborate, or with what attitude they tackle an assignment, then you definitely need an innovative arrangement.
Spatial competency: thinking about space and education has the nature of a conversation
A team leader notes that, with the realisation of the innovative PSLE-PLE, the process does not stop because innovation involves a continuous process of exchanging thoughts and experience:I think recognising the correct furniture composition requires training. Since I switched to innovative pedagogy, I apply ‘the art of hosting’. I consciously choose the arrangement that optimally supports my setting. However, some colleagues have less affinity with this.
Teachers also underline the importance of team dialogue for the pedagogical practice (team’s reflectiveness), but also for designing an appropriate PLE. They note that the implemented pedagogical repertoire is determined by the teaching team’s learning goal orientation and that therefore that a PLE that fits well with one team does not necessarily have to fit well with other teams with different learning orientations. They also note that discussing the PLE's design deepened their discussions on pedagogy:That is always with innovations, a few people get to work enthusiastically and the rest a little less. I noticed that thinking about space and education is more than conveying a certain concept; it has more the nature of a conversation.
In the cases when the users have been strongly involved, a good fit is experienced between the PLE and PSLE. When the users have been less involved, or not involved at all, teachers are significantly less positive about PLE’s fitness:This is the most valuable thing that the design of the physical learning environment has brought us: thinking about and discussing how we design and organise our education: from the basics, what you stand for, and which learning environment suits that best, educationally and physically. If you advocate a different pedagogy, then you may need completely different physical configurations.
There are contrary experiences in the cases for which users are empowered to (re-) design and adjust the space. Here, knowledge is constantly being developed about what works and what doesn't, as a member of team F said:It has been thought for us—with the best of intentions—by others, not with us. They have come up with all sorts of things and forgot to ask us. As a result, things have been built that don't work well at all. Because things can’t be changed anymore, we adapt to the space and not the other way around.
We are always trying something new to support the educational activities. We also often ask students to come up with solutions. Sometimes it fails, sometimes you solve something. We learn from that. I am proud of what we have achieved here. Only you should never stop developing. There is still much to gain…
Flexibility
Diversity: you can work dynamically, each place has a different function for me
Furniture arrangement diversity within one space enables switching directly between different settings as a teacher from case C said:The classrooms and the study landscape have a separate function for me. When I’m in the classroom, I’m there because then I have lessons; teacher-guided activities. When I’m in the study landscape, furnished with individual desks, I’m there to work on my assignments. We use the informal seating for discussing or just chatting.
In the default position, you can work dynamically, using the furniture arrangements’ diversity. You can respond quickly to students’ learning needs. Above a certain number of students, you have to adjust, limiting and losing furniture arrangements’ diversity. We prefer to avoid that, because then you may lose the pedagogically dynamic quality of the space. In those cases, we propose to split into two sessions. Nevertheless, it is convenient that I can rearrange the furniture during the day, to fit the changing learning activities. I regularly do that, but I always return it to the default position because that’s the best.
Rearrange ability: it is a lot of hassle
Change convenience is even more decisive in cases for which teachers need to return the furniture to its original configuration after a short period of use.You can use those wall elements to create spatial units for group work. We don't apply that much because it is a lot of hassle to move those things. They are quite heavy. If moving was really easy, we would use it more often.
For the sake of efficiency, teachers therefore do not rearrange the furniture arrangement, but rather adjust their pedagogical setting.Sometimes we try to change the furniture arrangement, but you often have to put everything back because another group is using that space after you. Then we don't do that because it will be at the expense of the time you want to spend on your session
Rearrange ability: good conversations and house-rules make the difference
Teachers indicate that they learn in the pedagogical practice of how to use the PLE’s flexibility effectively, as a teacher and as a team, and that mutual discussions help them to strengthen their spatial competencies:From the traditional learning environment in which everything was structured and predictable, you enter a flexible environment in which you are inquisitive. New environments require an investigative and self-regulating ability—from the student, but also from the teacher and the team.
In case C, the team developed rules regarding the default position in which the furniture must be replaced after use. Here, the interviewees emphasise that everyone then must adhere to the agreements, requiring a culture of rule clarity and conformity:Because of the flexibility of the furniture arrangement, you get informative discussions with your colleagues about what works and what doesn’t.
However, if this culture is lacking, the PLE’s flexibility can frustrate users because they often have to rearrange the furniture from an unpredictable arrangement:We address students and teachers about the use of the space. There are house rules. We point these out if they are not being followed.
In the cases A and B, students have a say over the PLE. Here, students emphasise the importance of mutual coordination and discussions also. They experience that without coordination a competitive atmosphere arises, If coordination does function well, they experience that this strengthens the group cohesiveness :Everyone organises the furniture arrangement differently. That gives you a lot of freedom but also frustration, because when you get there, it’s never the way you want it to be.
We made agreements among ourselves. If the agreements did not work, we adjusted them in consultation. If someone had a problem, we helped each other. At another course, agreements we made were nailed down for the entire period. There, each group claimed their own space; everyone was focused only on his own group.
Connection
Proximity: meeting each other helps you to get started, to share things, to learn from each other
Students experience that the openness of the learning common supports peer learning (student cooperation):The learning common is the home of the study program. If you are bothered by something, you can quickly share with others and discuss it.
Students and teachers mention that the informal meeting place—next to the learning common where everybody walks by—promotes unplanned contact moments. According to them, these informal moments, discussing personal issues and learning issues, promote feelings of cohesiveness and stimulate the learning process. As a teacher said:In an open space it is very easy to talk to each other. When I discuss things, then I analyse things, adding knowledge, generating new ideas. The learning process goes much faster, because you learn from each other.
The students mentioned the importance of an informal space for social bonding also:It is important to have our community spaces located together: the corridor, the hangout, the study landscape and the teaching space. For me, the best conversations and the best education take place outside the official lessons and learning spaces.
We were not only seriously busy there, but also having a cup of coffee, playing games. It's those little moments that make you bond with each other, stimulate you to get started, stimulate you to agree to do things together.
Acoustical connections: openness requires respect for disturbance sensitivity of people and activities
In addition, students also note that the level of distraction varies from person to person. Some seek out the bustle of their peers to work on their studies, while others just need silence. When working individually, students mostly use earplugs if they experience insufficient acoustical separation. Some students indicate that visual separations help them to avoid being visually distracted (e.g. sitting with their back to the others or by shielding their work place with screens).There are no specific separations and yet the space is used enormously varied. I think it works because people do respect each other.
Disjunction: making connections must be in the minds of people
Pedagogical emphasis on interaction appears to overcome lacking spatial connections. Even in case B, for which spaces are strongly separated, there are many interactions between the different users in the building, as one teacher said:We encourage students to use the spaces and facilities of the other study programs. If they get stuck, they can help each other from their own expertise.
According to team leaders, the position of the learning cluster can also promote or hinder environmental interaction. Team C experiences that the disjunction of their space from the building’s main routes hampers interaction. They say that spatial connections with a route can stimulate encounters and interaction with people, through chance encounters or by generating interest through displayed activities and projects. Whereas team C, which is focused on interaction with other study programs, prefers a location on the main route within the building, team B, which is focused on interactions with companies, prefers a location outside the campus. Their students experience that the location in the multicompany-building in the inner city promotes interaction with external stakeholders of the projects on which they are working:Making connections must be in the minds of people, then spatial separations don’t matter anymore.
According to teams B and D, working off-campus is especially beneficial for senior students in their transition from education to professional practice. For younger students, having their own place at the campus is more important for building a social bond with peers and teachers who can support them in their studies.On the university campus you are all in one secluded place, disconnected from society. What I really like here is that, if you want to do research, you can easily walk into the city and find people.
Personalisation
Customisability: by furnishing it yourself, the space becomes your own environment
Teachers have different opinions regarding the PLE’s distinctiveness and whether this should be determined by the staff, the team or by the students. Team E has furnished their learning space distinctively and profession-specifically, because they experience that this evokes profession-specific behaviour:It feels like a safe place where I belong. I think the kitchen is important for that, but also those other domestic elements that make you feel at home and behave as you would do at home. Because everyone behaves that way, they feel like my family to me.
However, such specific furnishing by the team can also hinder the students’ sense of ownership, as a student from case E said:For practical simulations, we prepare case studies and arrange the space in such a way that it closely resembles practice with everything that goes with it. Then that space supports professional behaviour. This style is characteristic for our profession, making our PLE distinctive.
Therefore, teams of the cases A, B, and F encourage their students to furnish the PLE themselves, because they have experienced that this contributes to a group’s cohesion and student engagement. Students experience this also:The design is a bit over the top. It doesn’t really feel my ‘own’, it feels even emptier and more clinical than it used to be when it was still a normal classroom, decorated by ourselves.
We arranged and maintained the space ourselves, in mutual consultation. By doing so, the entire space becomes your own environment. We have placed domestic elements such as a sofa, a rug, table lamps, plants. Doesn’t feel like being at school. Sitting on the couch with your friends, building a bond you would never have had in a classroom. That stimulates me to pursue my studies.
Customisability: it’s not so much about furnishing, it’s more about trust and having a say
For students, personalisation has more to do with being trusted and sharing control over the PLE, than with distinctive features or style:It felt like our own space when we furnished it ourselves with benches and a cupboard. But then other groups were also scheduled there, and I was not welcome at that moment. After that, it no longer felt proper and safe, not being our own, anymore.
However, students’ empowerment and the PSLE-PLE’s scale seem to be related. A teacher of case D noted that self-management did not appear feasible anymore after the enlargement of their learning cluster, with more groups using that PLE.For me, personalisation is not so much about exhibiting my own projects, but more about the respect and trust you get and the free use of the spaces and facilities.
Elements, aspects, and their attached meaning in relationships
Element | PLE sub-aspect | PLE aspect | PSLE aspect | Experienced relation a (incl. Mediating, moderating aspect) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
General | |||||
Peers’, teacher’s | Visibility (to each other) | Fitness | Student cooperation, student involvement | Multi-layered communication, interaction | |
Teachers’ | Visibility (to students) | Fitness | Teacher support | Teacher’s approachability | |
Students’ | Visibility (to teachers) | Fitness | Shared control, teacher support | Teacher’s supervision, noticing need for learning support (teacher’s positiveness, supportiveness/receptiveness) | |
Peers’, teacher’s | Intelligibility | Fitness | Student cooperation, student involvement | Multi-layered communication, interaction | |
Learning cluster | |||||
Learning cluster | Proximity to city | Connection | Environmental interaction | Interaction with external stakeholders, companies, organisations | |
Learning cluster—logistic route | Junction | Connection | Environmental interaction, relevance integration | Interaction with students, and teaching teams of other learning communities, study programs, disciplines | |
Learning cluster’s spaces | Availability/capacity | Fitness | Order and organisation | Size and number of groups and (simultaneously conducted) learning activities | |
Learning cluster’s spaces | Diversity | Flexibility | Order and organisation | Variety of teaching team’s pedagogical repertoire, and student learning diversity (spatial competency) | |
learning cluster’s spaces | Physical proximity | Connection | Order and organisation | Teaching team’s pedagogical agility (only in case of quickly and unpredictably changing between activities) | |
Group’s meeting room | Availability, capacity | Connection | Student cooperation | Enabling collaborative activities without disturbing others / being disturbed by others | |
Learning common—teacher workplace—informal meeting | Proximity | Connection | Teacher support, student involvement | Stimulating and enforcing mutual personal relationship between students, and between students and teaching team members (community’s ownership) | |
Spaces separation (wall, room dividers) | Rearrange ability, adaptability | Connection | Order and organisation | Increasing the possibilities to rearrange groups and/or activities, and moving of students and teachers (change convenience, empowerment) | |
Space | |||||
Floor area | Capacity | Fitness | Order and organisation | Group’s size, size and number of sub-groups and (simultaneously conducted) learning activities | |
Space’s design | Distinctiveness | Personalisation | Group cohesiveness | Feelings of belonging to the place and community | |
Space’s furniture arrangement and finishing | Profession-similarity | Expression | Student cooperation, student involvement | Specific cultural/professional behaviour | |
Furniture arrangement | Congruency | Fitness | Student cooperation, student involvement | Behavioural patterns of the intended pedagogical setting (spatial competency) | |
Furniture arrangement | Diversity | Flexibility | Order and organisation | Variety of teaching team’s pedagogical repertoire, and student learning diversity (spatial competency) | |
Furniture arrangement | Rearrange-ability | Flexibility | Order and organisation | Variety of team’s pedagogical repertoire, student learning diversity, pedagogical agility, (spatial competency, space’s floor area, empowerment to rearrange, rule clarity) | |
Student’s workplace | Separateness—peers’ workplaces | Connection | Student cooperation, student involvement | Interaction with peers, either disrupting or enhancing students’ learning activity (student respectfulness, rule clarity & conformity) | |
Student’s workplace | Separateness—teacher’s workplace | Connection | Teacher support | Interaction with teacher (e.g. For answering learning needs) | |
Furniture, finishings & equipment | |||||
Furniture | Ergonomics | Fitness | Student involvement | Students’ focus, student’s feeling of being respected, included | |
Furniture, power supply, equipment | Capacity, availability | Fitness | Order and organisation | Teacher’s pedagogical repertoire, student learning diversity | |
Display (e.g. Writable surfaces, boards) | Availability | Fitness | Student cooperation | Exchange of ideas | |
Furniture, equipment | Diversity | Flexibility | Order and organisation | Variety of teaching team’s pedagogical repertoire, and student learning diversity | |
Furniture, equipment | Move-ability Stack-ability | Flexibility | Order and organisation | Pedagogical agility, pedagogical repertoire (spatial competency, empowerment to rearrange) | |
Furniture, equipment | Homeliness | Personalisation | Group cohesiveness | Feelings of belonging to space and community | |
Furniture | Customisability | Personalisation | Order and organisation | Feelings of ownership (empowerment) | |
Furniture, equipment | Controllability lockability | Personalisation | Student involvement, shared control | Students’ feelings of ownership | |
Product display | Promotionality | Expression | Environmental interaction, relevance integration | Raising curiosity of passers-by, stimulating interaction and involvement |