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The Political Economy of Africa: Connecting the Past to the Present and Future of Development in Africa Read chapter Read first chapter

2020 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

55. The Political Economy of State-Sponsored Repatriation of Economic Migrants in Africa

Author : Israel Ekanade

Published in: The Palgrave Handbook of African Political Economy

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The expulsions of Africans from countries of destination within the continent dates back to 1958 when old French West Africa (Ivory Coast and Chad) deported over 1000 Beninoise and Togolese in separate incidents, under the tag “illegal migrants”. Other African states followed suit by expelling “aliens or foreigners” advancing different reasons for their actions. These acts were calculated attempts by the political gatekeepers of the respective countries to control their economies by giving indigenes the platform hitherto occupied by non-natives in the local economy. Belonging is all about entitlements in a nation, instead of addressing economic issues, the political class embarks on nationalist projects by blaming non-citizens for economic downturns and employs this as a diversionary tool to cover up for the failure of government to perform her duties to its citizenry. These acts erode African communal principles like “Ujamaa or Ubuntu”. Could it be attributed to the 1885 Berlin conference? Or Structural Adjustment Programmes that swept through Africa in the 1980s? This chapter contends that a borderless Africa will boost many economies by harnessing the gains of regionalism.

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previous chapter African Regional Integration and Pan-Africanism: The Case of African Migrants’ Welfare in Africa
next chapter Southern Africa’s Regionalism Driven by Realism
Footnotes
1
Aderanti Adepoju, “Emigration Dynamics in Sub-Saharan Africa”, International Migration, Special Issue on Emigration Dynamics in Developing Countries (1995): 3&4.
 
2
Paul Collier, “Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy”, World Bank Working Paper. Forthcoming in Crocker Chester A and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall (eds.) Managing Global Chaos Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace (2000).
 
3
Ibid.
 
4
John Akokpari, “The Political Economy of Human Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa”, Visiting Research Fellow Monograph Series No. 431 (2007), accessed January 03, 2019, http://​www.​ide.​go.​jp/​EnglishPublish/​Download/​Vrf/​pdf/​431.​pdf
 
5
Conflict Barometer, Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (2017).
 
6
Belinda Dodson, “Locating Xenophobia: Debate, Discourse and Everyday Experience in Cape Town, South Africa”, Africa Today (2010) 56(3), 2–22.
 
7
Adeoye Akinola, “South Africa and the Two Faces of Xenophobia: A Critical Reflection”. Africa Peace and Conflict Journal (2014) 7(1), 56–57.
 
8
Victor Adetula, “African Conflicts, Development and Regional Organizations in the Post-Cold War International System”. (2014) Paper Delivered at the Annual Claude Ake Memorial Lecture Uppsala, Sweden, NORDISKA AFRIKAINSTITUTET, UPPSALA.
 
9
Herve Ladsous, “UN Peacekeeping Operations in Africa: Change in 2013 and Priorities for 2014”. Speech by UN Under-Secretary General for the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. (2014) Chatham House.
 
10
Roland Skeldon, “International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches” (2017). United Nations New York.
 
11
Dinesh Bhugura, “Acculturation, Cultural Identity and Mental Health” in Psychiatry in Multicultural Britain, eds. Dinesh Bhugura and Ray Cochrane (London: Gaskell, 2001), 112–136.
 
12
Benjamin Bowling, and James Sheptycki, “Global Policing, Mobility and Social Control” in The Routledge Handbook on Crime and International Migration, eds Sharon Pickering and Julie Ham (The Routledge Handbook on Crime and International Migration, 2015).
 
13
Tesfalem Araia, “Report on Human Smuggling across the South Africa/Zimbabwe Border” (2009). Forced Migration Studies Programme. Wits University.
 
14
Christina Oelgemöller, “Transit and Suspension: Migration Management or the Metamorphosis of Asylum-Seekers into ‘Illegal’ Immigrants” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37 (2011): 407–424.
 
15
John Crowley, “The Politics of Belonging: Some Theoretical Consideration” in The Politics of Belonging: Migrants and Minorities in Contemporary Europe, eds. Andrew Geddes and Adrian Favell (Aldershot, Ashgate 1999), 15–41.
 
16
Willem Fourie, “Four Concepts of Africa”, HTS Teologiese/Theological Studies 71(3) (2015).
 
17
Osoro “The African Identity in Crisis” (Hudsonville: Michigan Bayana Publishers, 1993).
 
18
Samuel Oloruntoba, “Crisis of Identity and Xenophobia in Africa: The Imperative of a Pan-African Thought Liberation” in The Political Economy of Xenophobia in Africa, Advances in African Economic, Social and Political Development, ed. Adeoye Akinola (Springer International Publishing AG, 2018), 9–22.
 
19
Francis Nyamnjoh, “Insiders and Outsiders-Citizenship and Xenophobia in Contemporary Southern Africa” (Dakar: Codesria, 2006).
 
20
Ibid.
 
21
Imanuel Giess, “The Pan African Movement: A History of Pan Africanism in Europe, America and Africa” (New York: Africana 1974).
 
22
Vincent Bakpetu Thompson, “Africa and Unity: The Evolution of Pan-Africanism” (London: Longmans, Gree and Company, 1969).
 
23
Imanuel Giess, “The Pan African Movement: A History of Pan Africanism in Europe, America and Africa” (New York: Africana, 1974).
 
24
Colin Legum, “Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide” (London: Pall Mall Press, 1965).
 
25
Imanuel Giess, ibid.
 
26
Vincent Bakpetu Thompson, ibid.
 
27
Adekunle Ajala, “Pan-Africanism: Evolution, Progress and Prospects” (London: Andre Deutsch, 1973).
 
28
Ogochukwu Nzewi “The Role of the Pan African Parliament in African Regionalism (2006–2006), an Institutional Perspective”. Ph.D. Thesis University of Pretoria 2008.
 
29
Imanuel Giess, ibid.
 
30
Imanuel Giess, ibid.
 
31
Ali Mazrui and Michael Tidy, “Nationalism and New States in Africa” (Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, 1984).
 
32
Kwame Nkrumah, “Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism” (London: Panaf Books, 1965).
 
33
Ibid.
 
34
Colin Legum, ibid.
 
35
Ali Mazrui and Michael Tidy, ibid.
 
36
Ali Mazrui and Michael Tidy, ibid.
 
37
Ali Mazrui and Michael Tidy, ibid.
 
38
Colin Legum, ibid.
 
39
Ali Mazrui and Michael Tidy, ibid.
 
40
Daniel Gyollai and Anthony Amatrudo, “Controlling Irregular Migration: International Human Rights Standard and the Hungarian Legal Framework” (European Journal of Criminology, 2018).
 
41
Aderanti Adepoju, “Illegals and Expulsion in Africa: The Nigerian Experience” (International Migration Review, 1984).
 
42
Ibid.
 
43
Johnson Aremu and Adeyinka Ajayi, “Expulsion of Nigerian Immigrant Community from Ghana in 1969: Causes and Impact” (Developing Country Studies, 2014).
 
44
Johnson Aremu, “Responses to the 1983 Expulsion of Aliens from Nigeria: A Critique” (African Research Review, 2013).
 
45
Ibid.
 
46
Ibid.
 
47
Aderanti Adepoju, “Illegals and Expulsion in Africa: The Nigerian Experience” (International Migration Review, 1984).
 
48
Peter Nayenga, “Myths and Realities of Idi Amin Dada’s Uganda”, African Studies Review 22 (1979), 127–138.
 
49
Ibid.
 
50
Ibid.
 
51
Norbert Kersting, “New Nationalism and Xenophobia in Africa: A New Inclination?” Africa Spectrum 1(2009): 7–18.
 
52
Ibid.
 
53
Ibid.
 
54
Christopher Gray, “Cultivating Citizenship through Xenophobia in Gabon, 1960–1995” Africa Today 45 (1998) 389.
 
55
Ibid.
 
56
Beth Whitaker, “Citizens and Foreigners: Democratisation and the Politics of Exclusion in Africa”, African Studies Review 48 (2005): 109–126.
 
57
Norbert Kersting, ibid.
 
58
Beth Whitaker, ibid.
 
59
Beth Whitaker, ibid.
 
60
Eugene Campbell, “Attitudes of Botswana Citizens towards Immigrants: Signs of Xenophobia” International Migration 41 (2003): 4.
 
61
Rijk Van Dijk, “Localising Anxieties: Ghanaian and Malawian Immigrants, Rising Xenophobia, and Social Capital in Botswana” (ASC Working Paper No 49 Lieden: African Studies Centre, 2002).
 
62
Rex Chikoko, “Xenophobic Attacks on Refugees in Malawi”, Africa Review 3.
 
63
Suhuyini, “The Causes of Xenophobia. The Socialist Party of Great Britain” 2001, https://​www.​worldsocialism.​org/​spgb/​causes-xenophobia
 
64
Allan Meltzer, “The Independent Review” 4 (1999).
 
65
World Bank, “Adjustment Lending in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Update”, Report No. 16594, Operations Evaluation Department (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1997).
 
66
Patrick Dzimiri, “African Multilateral Responses to the Crises in Zimbabwe: A Responsibility to Protect Perspective” Strategic Review for Southern Africa 39 (2017): 2.
 
67
Abah Danladi and Peter Naankiel, “Structural Adjustment Programme in Nigeria and its Implication on Socio-Economic Development, 1980–1995” (Calabar Historic Journal, 2016): 6(2), 1–16.
 
Literature
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———. 1995. Emigration Dynamics in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Migration. Special Issue on Emigration Dynamics in Developing Countries 33 (3–4): 315–390.
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Ajala, A. 1973. Pan-Africanism: Evolution, Progress and Prospects. London: André Deutsch.
Akinola, A. 2014. South Africa and the Two Faces of Xenophobia: A Critical Reflection. Africa Peace and Conflict Journal 7 (1): 56–67.
Akokpari, J. 2007. The Political Economy of Human Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Institute of Developing Economies. Japan External Trade Organization.
Araia, T. 2009. Report on Human Smuggling across the South Africa/Zimbabwe Border. Forced Migration Studies Programme. Wits University.
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Aremu, J., and A. Ajayi. 2014. Expulsion of Nigerian Immigrant Community from Ghana in 1969: Causes and Impact. Developing Country Studies 4 (10): 176–186.
Bhugra, D. 2001. Acculturation, Cultural Identity and Mental Health. In Psychiatry in Multicultural Britain, ed. D. Bhugra and R. Cochrane, 112–136. London: Gaskell.
Bowling, B., and J. Sheptycki. 2015. Global Policing, Mobility and Social Control. In The Routledge Handbook on Crime and International Migration, ed. S. Pickering and J. Ham. Abingdon: Routledge.
Campbell, E. 2003. Attitudes of Botswana Citizens Toward Immigrants: Signs of Xenophobia. Oxford: Blackwells.
Collier, P. 2000. Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy. World Bank. Working Paper. Forthcoming in Crocker, Chester A. and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall (eds.) Managing Global Chaos. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace. 1–23.
Crowley, J. 1999. The Politics of Belonging: Some Theoretical Considerations. In The Politics of Belonging: Migrants and Minorities in Contemporary Europe, ed. Andrew Geddes and Adrian Favell, 15–41. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Danladi, A., and P. Naankiel. 2016. Structural Adjustment Programme in Nigeria and its Implication on Socio-Economic Development, 1980–1995. Calabar Historical Journal 6 (2): 1–16.
Dodson, B. 2010. Locating Xenophobia: Debate, Discourse, and Everyday Experience in Cape Town, South Africa. Africa Today 56 (3): 2–22.CrossRef
Dzimiri, P. 2017. African Multilateral Responses to the Crisis in Zimbabwe: A Responsibility to Protect Perspective. Strategic Review for Southern Africa. 39 (2): 50–77.
Fourie, W. 2015. Four Concepts of Africa. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 71 (3): Art. #2847.CrossRef
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Kersting, N. 2009. New Nationalism and Xenophobia in Africa: A New Inclination? Africa Spectrum 44 (1): 7–18.CrossRef
Ladsous, H. 2014. UN Peacekeeping Operations in Africa: Change in 2013 and Priorities for 2014. Speech by UN Under-Secretary General for the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Chatham House.
Legum, C. 1965. Pan-Africanism: A Short Political Guide. London: Pall Mall Press.
Mazrui, A., and M. Tidy. 1984. Nationalism and New States in Africa. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers Ltd.
Meltzer, Allan. 1999. What’s Wrong with the IMF? What Would Be Better? Independent Review 4 (Fall): 201–215.
Nayenga, P. 1979. Myths and Realities of Idi Amin Dada’s Uganda. African Studies Review 22 (2): 127–138.CrossRef
Nkrumah, K. 1965. Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. London: Panaf Books.
Nyamnjoh, F.B. 2006. Insiders and Outsiders-Citizenship and Xenophobia in Contemporary Southern Africa. Dakar: Codesria.CrossRef
Nzewi, O. 2008. The Role of the Pan African Parliament in African Regionalism (2004–2006), an Institutional Perspective. Unpublished Thesis, University of Pretoria.
Oelgemöller, C. 2011. Transit and Suspension: Migration Management or the Metamorphosis of Asylum-Seekers into ‘Illegal’ Immigrants. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37: 407–424.CrossRef
Oloruntoba, S. 2018. Crisis of Identity and Xenophobia in Africa: The Imperative of a Pan-African Thought Liberation. In The Political Economy of Xenophobia in Africa, Advances in African Economic, Social and Political Development, ed. A.O. Akinola. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Osoro, R. 1993. The African Identity in Crisis: Hudsonville. Michigan: Bayana Publishers.
Skeldon, R. 2017. International Migration, Internal Migration, Mobility and Urbanization: Towards More Integrated Approaches. United Nations New York.
Thompson, V.B. 1969. Africa and Unity: The Evolution of Pan-Africanism. London: Longmans, Gree and Company Ltd.
Van Dijk, R. 2002. Localising Anxieties: Ghanaian and Malawian Immigrants, Rising Xenophobia, and Social Capital in Botswana. ASC Working Paper No. 49. Leiden: African Studies Centre.
Whitaker, B. 2005. Citizens and Foreigners: Democratisation and the Politics of Exclusion in Africa. African Studies Review 48 (1): 109–126.CrossRef
World Bank. 1997 Adjustment Lending in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Update. Report No. 16594, Operations Evaluation Department. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Metadata
Title
The Political Economy of State-Sponsored Repatriation of Economic Migrants in Africa
Author
Israel Ekanade
Copyright Year
2020
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Book
The Palgrave Handbook of African Political Economy

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-38921-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-38922-2

Copyright Year: 2020

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38922-2_55

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