1 Introduction
2 The Social Norm to Work Theory of Unemployment
2.1 The Short- and Long-Term Unemployed
2.2 The ‘Hidden Unemployed’, Including the Economically Inactive
3 Data and Measurement
3.1 WVS and EVS
Min | Max | Male | Female | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |||
Individual level
| ||||||
Subjective well-being | 0 | 9 | 5.94 | 1.90 | 5.95 | 1.97 |
Employment status
| ||||||
Full-time employed | 0 | 1 | .62 | .43 | ||
Unemployed | 0 | 1 | .09 | .08 | ||
Retired | 0 | 1 | .11 | .11 | ||
Homemaker | 0 | 1 | .00 | .18 | ||
Student | 0 | 1 | .03 | .04 | ||
Part-time employed | 0 | 1 | .04 | .10 | ||
Self-employed | 0 | 1 | .09 | .04 | ||
Other | 0 | 1 | .02 | .02 | ||
Age | 21 | 65 | 41.67 | 12.71 | 42.02 | 12.61 |
Education
| ||||||
0 Incomplete primary | 0 | 1 | .02 | .03 | ||
1 Primary | 0 | 1 | .11 | .12 | ||
2 Incomplete secondary | 0 | 1 | .13 | .12 | ||
3 Secondary vocational | 0 | 1 | .19 | .15 | ||
4 Incomplete sec univ | 0 | 1 | .12 | .11 | ||
5 Secondary univ | 0 | 1 | .20 | .22 | ||
6 Incomplete university | 0 | 1 | .11 | .12 | ||
7 University | 0 | 1 | .13 | .13 | ||
Marital status
| ||||||
Married/living together | 0 | 1 | .67 | .66 | ||
Single | 0 | 1 | .25 | .17 | ||
Divorced/separated | 0 | 1 | .07 | .10 | ||
Widowed | 0 | 1 | .02 | .07 | ||
Income | 0 | 1 | 5.83 | 2.79 | 4.72 | 2.79 |
Church attendance | 0 | 7 | 2.42 | 2.35 | 2.99 | 2.38 |
Norm to work | 1 | 10 | 6.15 | 2.89 | 6.08 | 2.89 |
Work ethic | 1 | 5 | 3.59 | .77 | 3.53 | .78 |
National level variables
| ||||||
GDP | 2965.10 | 82,904.15 | 2128.36 | 12,197.66 | ||
Unemployment rate | .70 | 33.80 | 8.45 | 4.82 | ||
Norm to work | 4.24 | 7.93 | 6.21 | .75 | ||
Replacement rate | 2.02 | 72.31 | 37.12 | 14.01 | ||
Work ethic | 2.82 | 4.25 | 3.58 | .28 |
3.2 The European Social Survey
Min | Max | Male | Female | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |||
Individual level
| ||||||
Subjective well-being | 0 | 10 | 6.95 | 1.96 | 6.95 | 2.04 |
Employment status | ||||||
Employed | 0 | 1 | .66 | .46 | ||
Retired | 0 | 1 | .09 | .09 | ||
Homemaker | 0 | 1 | .100 | .32 | ||
Student | 0 | 1 | .05 | .05 | ||
Non-working disabled | .03 | .02 | ||||
Short-term unemployed | 0 | 1 | .03 | .02 | ||
Long-term unemployed | 0 | 1 | .02 | .02 | ||
Other | .02 | .02 | ||||
Age | 21 | 65 | 43.00 | 1.26 | 43.37 | 12.47 |
Education
| ||||||
1 Less than lower sec | 0 | 1 | .05 | .06 | ||
2 Lower secondary | 0 | 1 | .13 | .15 | ||
3 Lower tier upper sec | 0 | 1 | .29 | .23 | ||
4 Upper tier upper sec | 0 | 1 | .22 | .23 | ||
5 Advanced voc. sub-degree | 0 | 1 | .09 | .09 | ||
6 Lower tertiary | 0 | 1 | .10 | .13 | ||
7 Higher tertiary | 0 | 1 | .12 | .11 | ||
Marital status
| ||||||
Married/living together | 0 | 1 | .59 | .60 | ||
Separated | 0 | 1 | .02 | .02 | ||
Divorced | 0 | 1 | .07 | .10 | ||
Widowed | 0 | 1 | .02 | .06 | ||
Never married | 0 | 1 | .30 | .22 | ||
Income | −1.97 | .214 | .974 | .95 | .06 | .98 |
Church attendance | 1 | 7 | 2.321 | 1.41 | 2.70 | 1.51 |
National level variables
| ||||||
GDP | 5577.49 | 67,115.61 | 27,821.76 | 11,008.06 | ||
Unemployment rate | 2.60 | 19.90 | 7.11 | 3.28 | ||
Norm to work | 4.78 | 7.55 | 6.35 | .60 | ||
Replacement rate | 19.40 | 71.89 | 4.89 | 15.72 | ||
Work ethic | 2.88 | 4.09 | 3.53 | .26 |
4 Methods
5 Results
5.1 Results from the WVS and EVS Dataset
Men | Women | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M1 | M2 | M3 | M4 | M1 | M2 | M3 | M4 | |
Constant | −.492 (.003)*** | −.492 (.003)*** | −.477 (.005)*** | .479 (.005)*** | .519 (.003)** | .519 (.003)*** | .476 (.005)*** | .480 (.005)*** |
Individual level
a
| ||||||||
Employment status (ref = full-time) | ||||||||
Unemployed | −.807 (.061)*** | .322 (.335) | .755 (.605) | .933 (.813) | −.582 (.061)*** | −.577 (.061)*** | −.493 (.123)*** | −1.584 (.667)* |
Retired | −.292 (.085)** | −.856 (.316)** | .365 (.535) | .878 (.727) | −.123 (.066)+
| −.119 (.066)+
| −.159 (.130) | 1.111 (.641)+
|
Housewife | −.137 (.328) | −.879 (1.119) | −4.641 (2.428)+
| −1.477 (4.254) | .099 (.052)+
| .104 (.052)* | .070 (.096) | −.487 (.519) |
Students | .045 (.094) | .338 (.435) | 2.348 (.824)** | .769 (1.134) | .049 (.092) | .065 (.091) | −.161 (.168) | −2.160 (.863)* |
Part time | −.184 (.100)+
| .408 (.392) | .187 (.874) | −.032 (1.211) | .118 (.066)+
| .121 (.066)+
| −.020 (.116) | −.217 (.582) |
Self-employed | .083 (.068) | .629 (.335)+
| 1.043 (.538)+
| 1.111 (.699) | .067 (.090) | .067 (.090) | −.039 (.160) | −.405 (.775) |
Other | −.894 (.119)*** | −.412 (.528) | .354 (.987) | 1.760 (1.338) | −.388 (.111)** | −.386 (.111)** | −.952 (.186)*** | −2.426 (.872)** |
Norm to work | .032 (.003)** | .032 (.003)*** | .033 (.006)*** | .031 (.006)*** | .030 (.004)** | .030 (.004)*** | .026 (.006)*** | .023 (.007)** |
Work ethic | .099 (.017)*** | .051 (.016)** | ||||||
Individual level interactions
| ||||||||
Norm to work* | ||||||||
Unemployed | .005 (.008) | .007 (.008) | .009 (.017) | −.301 (.091)** | −.002 (.008) | −.001 (.008) | −.007 (.018) | −.006 (.018) |
Retired | .010 (.011) | .007 (.011) | −.013 (.017) | −.079 (.078) | .002 (.008) | .001 (.008) | .006 (.017) | .007 (.016) |
Housewife | −.016 (.049) | −.019 (.050) | .056 (.062) | .568 (.414) | −.003 (.006) | −.003 (.006) | −.005 (.012) | −.006 (.012) |
Students | −.007 (.014) | −.007 (.014) | −.012 (.026) | −.373 (.125)** | .002 (.013) | .007 (.013) | .041 (.024)+
| .045 (.025)+
|
Part time | .005 (.015) | .007 (.015) | .012 (.030) | .096 (.140) | −.015 (.009)+
| −.014 (.009) | .003 (.015) | .006 (.015) |
Self-employed | −.005 (.008) | −.004 (.008) | −.018 (.016) | −.115 (.077) | .003 (.012) | .001 (.012) | .013 (.022) | .019 (.023) |
Other | .031 (.017)+
| .033 (.017)+
| .072 (.028)* | .231 (.162) | .024 (.016) | .026 (.016) | .058 (.025)* | .058 (.024)* |
National level variables
b
| ||||||||
Norm to work | −.003 (.048) | .028 (.052) | −.476 (.328) | −1.285 (.524)* | .056 (.040) | .081 (.046)+
| −.293 (360) | −2.381 (.522)*** |
Unemployment rate | .015 (.007)* | .015 (.007)* | .041 (.025) | −.030 (.046) | .009 (.006) | .009 (.006) | .035 (.028) | −.023 (.045) |
Replacement rate | −.008 (.006) | −.004 (.452) | −.002 (.007) | −.004 (.005) | ||||
Work ethic | 2.047 (.973)* | |||||||
Cross-level interactions
| ||||||||
Norm to work* | ||||||||
Unemployed | −.185 (.054)** | −.262 (.094)** | −.301 (.091)** | −.084 (.051)+
| −.214 (.120)* | −.313 (.091)** | ||
Retired | .093 (.051)+
| −.071 (.084) | −.079 (.078) | .061 (.045) | .091 (.111) | .099 (.075) | ||
Housewife | .124 (.181) | .677 (.379)+
| .568 (.414) | −.062 (.046) | .060 (.108) | .056 (.069) | ||
Students | −.048 (.069) | −.349 (.126)** | −.373 (.125)** | −.160 (.064)** | −.169 (.140) | −.211 (.114)+
| ||
Part time | −.098 (.064) | −.078 (.138) | −.096 (.140) | −.060 (.049) | −.040 (.117) | −.012 (.083) | ||
Self-employed | −.089 (.054)+
| −.136 (.084) | −.115 (.077) | .061 (.061) | .208 (.133) | .149 (.106) | ||
Other | −.079 (.085) | −.243 (.153) | −.231 (.162) | −.061 (.070) | .289 (.165)+
| .287 (.152)+
| ||
Work ethic* | ||||||||
Unemployed | .018 (.156) | .308 (.184)+
| ||||||
Retired | −.118 (.160) | −.354 (.175)* | ||||||
Housewife | −.720 (.854) | .165 (.142) | ||||||
Students | .479 (.223)* | .555 (.236)* | ||||||
Part time | .093 (.240) | .048 (.164) | ||||||
Self-employed | −.054 (.142) | .098 (.211) | ||||||
Other | −.418 (.304) | .408 (.251) | ||||||
Respondents | 66,287 | 66,287 | 19,464 | 18,207 | 76,546 | 76,546 | 23,259 | 21,852 |
Country-years | 134 | 134 | 41 | 38 | 134 | 134 | 41 | 38 |
Countries | 48 | 48 | 30 | 30 | 48 | 48 | 30 | 30 |
5.2 Results from the ESS Dataset
Men | Women | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M1 | M2 | M3 | M4 | M1 | M2 | M3 | M4 | ||
Constant | .516 (.003)*** | .516 (.003)*** | .500 (.003)*** | .502 (.003)*** | .555 (.003)*** | .555 (.003)*** | .540 (.003)*** | .542 (.003)*** | |
Individual level
a
| |||||||||
Employment status (ref = employed) | |||||||||
Unemployed short | −.819 (.059)*** | −.825 (.064)** | −.779 (.075)** | −.635 (.805)* | −.598 (.057)*** | −.605 (.057)*** | −.635 (.060)*** | −.806 (.870) | |
Unemployed long | −1.253 (.069)*** | −1.160 (.079)** | −.962 (.097)** | −.674 (.978) | −.681 (.060)*** | −.680 (.060)*** | −.674 (.065)*** | −1.485 (.865)+
| |
In education | .164 (.054)** | .163 (.062)** | .112 (.072) | −2.410 (.703)** | .194 (.047)*** | .195 (.047)*** | .161 (.049)** | −2.132 (.635)** | |
Non-working disabled | −.950 (.061)*** | −.965 (.070)** | −.918 (.081)** | 1.421 (.769)+
| −.870 (.057)*** | −.867 (.057)*** | −.890 (.060)*** | −.891 (.706) | |
Retired | −.112 (.050)* | −.123 (.055)* | −.046 (.063) | 3.312 (.652)*** | −.111 (.043)* | −.110 (.043)* | −.102 (.047)* | 3.940 (.616)*** | |
Homemaker | −.074 (.048) | −.081 (.056) | −.141 (.073)+
| 1.183 (.624)+
| −.015 (.033) | −.013 (.033) | −.016 (.035) | .471 (.439) | |
Other | −.186 (.064)*** | −.214 (.077)** | −.178 (.091)+
| −.632 (.882) | −.059 (.057) | −.047 (.058) | −.043 (.062) | −.174 (.744) | |
National level
b
| |||||||||
Norm to work | −.109 (.122) | −.111 (.128) | −.017 (.132) | −.069 (.127) | −.149 (.099) | −.095 (.103) | −.033 (.109) | −.086 (.103) | |
Unemployment rate | −.057 (.012)*** | −.056 (.012)** | −.054 (.013)** | −.062 (.016)*** | −.037 (.010)*** | −.037 (.010)*** | −.031 (.011)*** | −.048 (.013)*** | |
Replacement rate | −.011 (.004)** | −.007 (.005) | −.007 (.003)* | −.001 (.005) | |||||
Work ethic | .599 (.365) | ||||||||
Cross-level interactions
| |||||||||
Norm to work* | |||||||||
Unemployed short | .021 (.094) | −.079 (.120) | −.152 (.122) | −.191 (.096)* | −.243 (.123)* | −.260 (.127)* | |||
Unemployed long | −.281 (.115)* | −.621 (.154)*** | −.473 (.164)** | −.051 (.104) | −.322 (.143)* | −.346 (.149)* | |||
In education | .005 (.087) | .075 (.109) | .000 (.113) | −.058 (.075) | .003 (.096) | −.061 (.099) | |||
Non-working disabled | .049 (.106) | −.102 (.134) | .040 (.135) | −.117 (.103) | −.163 (.132) | −.197 (.136) | |||
Retired | .034 (.076) | −.122 (.096) | .011 (.097) | −.015 (.061) | −.057 | (.085) | .081 (.086) | ||
Homemaker | .016 (.080) | .081 (.112) | .111 (.119) | −.063 (.055) | −.068 (.072) | −.102 (.070) | |||
Other | .069 (.110) | .040 (.140) | .065 (.147) | −.147 (.108) | −.185 (.133) | −.238 (.141)+
| |||
Work ethic* | −.007 (.005) | ||||||||
Unemployed short | .321 (.230) | .048 (.246) | |||||||
Unemployed long | −.680 (.282)* | .233 (.243) | |||||||
In education | .730 (.203)*** | .656 (.181)*** | |||||||
Non-working disabled | −.676 (.224)** | .002 (.205) | |||||||
Retired | −.962 (.187)*** | −1.138 (.173)*** | |||||||
Homemaker | −.384 (.183)* | −.142 (.125) | |||||||
Other | −.233 (.238) | .038 (.214) | |||||||
Respondents | 58,474 | 58,474 | 52,657 | 47,963 | 66,759 | 66,759 | 58,854 | 53,983 | |
Country-years | 91 | 91 | 80 | 74 | 91 | 91 | 80 | 74 | |
Countries | 31 | 31 | 27 | 26 | 31 | 31 | 27 | 26 |