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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

1. Trafficking Is Problematic

Author : Jennifer K. Lobasz

Published in: Constructing Human Trafficking

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter establishes that human trafficking is a contested concept—that its meaning is neither straightforward nor unproblematic, and that constructions of trafficking reflect constellations of competing interests and values. The chapter ties the poor quality of quantitative data on human trafficking to its conceptual fluidity and contentious politics, and then goes on to explain why there is no technical or apolitical solution to this problem. Next, it provides an overview of the book’s aims and arguments, and a justification for the US case. Finally, the chapter introduces its methodology, and concludes with a preview of the plan for the book.

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next chapter Contemporary Approaches to Human Trafficking

Jennifer K. Lobasz, “Trafficking Scholarship, World-Traveling, and Loving Perception” (Trollhättan, Sweden: Center for Studies of Diversity, Equality and Integration, University West, 2013).

United States Department of State, “What Is Modern Slavery?” Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, accessed September 29, 2009, https://www.state.gov/j/tip/what/.

Jennifer K. Lobasz, “Beyond Border Security: Feminist Approaches to Human Trafficking,” Security Studies 18, no. 2 (2009): 327.

Or, as David Hodge puts it, “It is important to emphasize […] that no one questions the existence of the problem.” David R. Hodge, “Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions,” Social Work 53, no. 2 (2008): 144. Emphasis added.

George W. Bush, “Speech before the United Nations, General Assembly in New York,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.presidentialrhetoric.com/speeches/09.23.03.html.

Ibid.

United Nations General Assembly, “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4720706c0.html.

Government Accountability Office, “Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad,” (2006): 37–39.

Liz Kelly, “‘You Can Find Anything You Want’: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe,” International Migration 43, no. 1/2 (2005): 236.

Claudia Aradau, Rethinking Trafficking in Women: Politics Out of Security (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

Jyoti Sanghera, “Unpacking the Trafficking Discourse,” in Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, ed. Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), 10. See also Joel Quirk, “Trafficked into Slavery,” Journal of Human Rights 6 (2007): 191.

Radhika Coomaraswamy, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women: Trafficking in Women, Women’s Migration and Violence against Women” (Geneva: Economic and Social Council, 2000), 8.

The protocol supplements the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, also known as the Palermo Convention after the Italian city in which it was signed. Within the anti-trafficking community, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children may be referred to as the Palermo Protocol or the Trafficking Protocol. The Trafficking Protocol entered into force on December 25, 2003.

United Nations General Assembly.

Quirk describes the Trafficking Protocol definition as “widely acknowledged as a fundamental benchmark.” Quirk, 193. See also Asif Efrat, “Global Efforts against Human Trafficking: The Misguided Conflation of Sex, Labor, and Organ Trafficking,” International Studies Perspectives 17, no. 1 (2016): 35.

Frank Laczko, “Data and Research on Human Trafficking,” International Migration 43, no. 1–2 (2005): 10. See also Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovskis, “Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking,” ibid., no. 1/2: 20; Julia O’Connell Davidson and Bridget Anderson, “The Trouble with ‘Trafficking’,” in Trafficking and Women’s Rights, ed. Christien L. van der Anker and Jeroen Doomernik (Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 17.

Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 146.

See Alisdair MacIntyre, “The Essential Contestability of Some Social Concepts,” Ethics 84, no. 1 (1973).

Elzbieta M. Gozdziak and Elizabeth A. Collett, “Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of Literature,” International Migration 43, no. 1–2 (2005): 107.

Amy O’Neill Richard, “International Trafficking in Women to the United States: A Contemporary Manifestation of Slavery and Organized Crime,” in DCI Exceptional Intelligence Analyst Program (Washington: Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2000), 3.

Ernesto U. Savona and Sonia Stefanizzi, “Introduction,” in Measuring Human Trafficking: Complexities and Pitfalls, ed. Ernesto U. Savona and Sonia Stefanizzi (New York: Springer, 2007), 2. See also Kauko Aromaa, “Trafficking in Human Beings: Uniform Definitions for Better Measuring and for Effective Counter-Measures,” ibid., ed. Ernesto Savona and Sonia Stefanizzi (New York: Springer); Gillian Wylie, The International Politics of Human Trafficking (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

Kamala Kempadoo, “From Moral Panic to Social Justice: Changing Perspectives on Trafficking,” in Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, ed. Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), xix.

Government Accountability Office, “Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad,” (2006), 10.

Ibid. Laczko and Gramegna concur, noting “it is still common in many countries to mingle data relating to trafficking, smuggling, and irregular migration. Frank Laczko and Marco A. Gramegna, “Developing Better Indicators of Human Trafficking,” Brown Journal of World Affairs 10, no. 1 (2003): 181.

Savona and Stefanizzi, 2.

Ibid.

UNESCO Trafficking Project, “Worldwide Trafficking Estimates by Organizations,” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1963.

David A. Feingold, “Trafficking in Numbers: The Social Construction of Human Trafficking Data,” in Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict, ed. Peter Andreas and Kelly M. Greenhill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 66.

Aradau, 19.

Tyldum and Brunovskis, 18. See also Aradau, 12; Free the Slaves and the Human Rights Center, “Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the US,” University of California, Berkeley, accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.hrcberkeley.org/download/hiddenslaves_report.pdf; Government Accountability Office, 15; O’Neill Richard, 3.

Government Accountability Office, 15.

Laczko, 8.

O’Neill Richard, 31.

Laczko and Gramegna, 184.

Aradau, 20.

Laczko, 8.

Liz Kelly, “‘You Can Find Anything You Want’: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe,” ibid., no. 1/2: 236.

Galma Jahic and James O. Finckenauer, “Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking,” Trends in Organized Crime 8, no. 3 (2005): 25.

See also Feingold; David E. Guinn, “Defining the Problem of Trafficking: The Interplay of U.S. Law, Donor, and Ngo Engagement and the Local Context in Latin America,” Human Rights Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2008); Tyldum and Brunovskis.

Feingold, 64.

Tyldum and Brunovskis, 18.

Guinn, 121.

Peter Andreas, “The Politics of Measuring Illicit Flows and Policy Effectiveness,” in Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict, ed. Peter Andreas and Kelly M. Greenhill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 23.

Guinn, 121.

See Tyldum and Brunovskis, 17; Savona and Stefanizzi; Laczko.

Glenda Holste, “Bipartisan Efforts Are Propelling Violence against Women Act,” The Saint Paul Pioneer Press, October 9, 2000.

Ibid.

See Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, “Defending the West: Occidentalism and the Formation of Nato,” Journal of Political Philosophy 11, no. 3 (2003): 238.

By “power,” I mean “the production, in and through social relations, of effects that shape the capacities of actors to determine their own circumstances and fate.” Michael N. Barnett and Raymond Duvall, “Power in Global Governance,” in Power in Global Governance, ed. Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 3.

Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A.M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), 44–46.

“The question of who should be protected, from what and why are central and necessary to the determination of how they should be protected.” Ali Miller and Alison N. Stewart, “Report from the Roundtable on the Meaning of ‘Trafficking in Persons’: A Human Rights Perspective,” Women’s Rights Law Reporter 20, no. 1 (1998): 13.

Borrowing from Weldes, et al. I hold that human trafficking and its subjects “are naturalized in the sense that they are treated as facts that…can be taken for granted.” Jutta Weldes et al., “Introduction: Constructing Insecurity,” in Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities and the Production of Danger (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 9.

Jo Doezema, “Now You See Her, Now You Don’t: Sex Workers at the Un Trafficking Protocol Negotiation,” Social & Legal Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 64.

Ethan A. Nadelmann, “Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society,” International Organization 44, no. 4 (1990): 481.

On internal tensions and the impossibility of discursive closure, see Stuart Hall, “Signification, Representation, Ideology: Althusser and the Post-Structuralist Debates,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 2, no. 2 (1985); Foucault, 45.

Jutta Weldes, “Bureaucratic Politics: A Critical Constructivist Assessment,” Mershon International Studies Review 42, no. 2 (1998).

Human trafficking is also referred to as trafficking in persons (TIP), trafficking in human beings (THB), and modern-day slavery.

Aradau.

On gendered logics of world order, see V. Spike Peterson, “A ‘Gendered Global Hierarchy’?,” in Contending Images of World Politics, ed. Greg Fry and Jacinta O’Hagan (London: Macmillan, 2000).

On the calcification of each side of the “feminist sex wars,” see Ann Ferguson, “Sex War: The Debate between Radical and Libertarian Feminists,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 10, no. 1 (1984).

Foucault, 49. See also David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1992): 5; Lene Hansen, Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War (London: Routledge, 2006): 18–23.

Laura J. Shepherd, Gender, Violence and Security: Discourse as Practice (London: Zed Books, 2008), 20. Shepherd goes on to caution, “In suggesting that discourses ‘fix’ meaning I do not want to imply that there is any transhistorical continuity or universality to meaning. Rather, the ‘terms of intelligibility’ are multiple, open, and fluid.” Ibid.

Mark Laffey and Jutta Weldes, “Methodological Reflections on Discourse Analysis,” Qualitative Methods 2, no. 1 (2004): 28. See also Jo Doezema, “Ouch! Western Feminists’ ‘Wounded Attachment’ to the ‘Third World Prostitute’,” Feminist Review 67, no. 1 (2001): 20.

See, e.g., Moya Lloyd, “(Women’s) Human Rights: Paradoxes and Possibilities,” Review of International Studies 33 (2007): 99.

Foucault, 25, 28.

Ted Hopf, “The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory,” International Security 23, no. 1 (1998): 31. See also Hansen, 8.

The words of Alisdair MacIntyre prove instructive:

Suppose someone proposed to operationalize such concepts as those of education or freedom by definitional legislation. … Any claim about its validity would be in conflict with other categorizations and since these, as we have already seen, involve normative claims, so would the aspiring scientific theory. To operationalize would be to participate in the debate, not to escape it. MacIntyre, 8.

Wendy Brown, Politics out of History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 122.

Ibid., 41.

Ibid., 98.

See also Judith Butler, Undoing Gender (New York: Routledge, 2004), 38.

Brown, 43.

Andreas, Peter. “The Politics of Measuring Illicit Flows and Policy Effectiveness.” In Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict, edited by Peter Andreas and Kelly M. Greenhill, 23–45. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.

Aradau, Claudia. Rethinking Trafficking in Women: Politics Out of Security. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.CrossRef

Aromaa, Kauko. “Trafficking in Human Beings: Uniform Definitions for Better Measuring and for Effective Counter-Measures.” In Measuring Human Trafficking: Complexities and Pitfalls, edited by Ernesto Savona and Sonia Stefanizzi, 13–26. New York: Springer, 2007.

Bales, Kevin. Understanding Global Slavery. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

Barnett, Michael N., and Raymond Duvall, eds. Power in Global Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

———. “Power in Global Governance.” In Power in Global Governance, edited by Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, 1–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Brown, Wendy. Politics Out of History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.

Bush, George W. “Speech before the United Nations, General Assembly in New York.” Accessed September 29, 2009. http://www.presidentialrhetoric.com/speeches/09.23.03.html.

Butler, Judith. Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Campbell, David. Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1992.

Chowdhry, Geeta, and Sheila Nair, eds. Power, Postcolonialism and International Relations: Reading Race, Gender and Class. New York and London: Routledge, 2014.

Coomaraswamy, Radhika. “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women: Trafficking in Women, Women’s Migration and Violence against Women.” Geneva: Economic and Social Council, 2000.

Doezema, Jo. “Now You See Her, Now You Don’t: Sex Workers at the Un Trafficking Protocol Negotiation.” Social & Legal Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 61–89.CrossRef

———. “Ouch! Western Feminists’ ‘Wounded Attachment’ to the ‘Third World Prostitute’.” Feminist Review 67, no. 1 (2001): 16–38.CrossRef

Doty, Roxanne Lynn. “Immigration and the Politics of Security.” Security Studies 8, no. 2/3 (1998): 71–93.CrossRef

Efrat, Asif. “Global Efforts against Human Trafficking: The Misguided Conflation of Sex, Labor, and Organ Trafficking.” International Studies Perspectives 17, no. 1 (2016): 34–54.

Feingold, David A. “Trafficking in Numbers: The Social Construction of Human Trafficking Data.” In Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict, edited by Peter Andreas and Kelly M. Greenhill, 46–74. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.

Ferguson, Ann. “Sex War: The Debate between Radical and Libertarian Feminists.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 10, no. 1 (1984): 106–12.CrossRef

Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language. Translated by A. M. Sheridan Smith. New York: Pantheon Books, 1972.

Free the Slaves and the Human Rights Center. “Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the US.” University of California, Berkeley. Accessed September 29, 2009. http://www.hrcberkeley.org/download/hiddenslaves_report.pdf.

Government Accountability Office. “Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad.” 2006.

Gozdziak, Elzbieta M., and Elizabeth A. Collett. “Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of Literature.” International Migration 43, no. 1–2 (2005): 99–128.CrossRef

Guinn, David E. “Defining the Problem of Trafficking: The Interplay of U.S. Law, Donor, and NGO Engagement and the Local Context in Latin America.” Human Rights Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2008): 119–45.CrossRef

Hall, Stuart. “Signification, Representation, Ideology: Althusser and the Post-structuralist Debates.” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 2, no. 2 (1985): 91–114.CrossRef

Hansen, Lene. Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War. London: Routledge, 2006.

Hesford, Wendy S., and Wendy Kozol, eds. Just Advocacy? Women’s Human Rights, Transnational Feminisms, and the Politics of Representation. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005.

Hodge, David R. “Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions.” Social Work 53, no. 2 (April 2008): 143–52.CrossRef

Holste, Glenda. “Bipartisan Efforts Are Propelling Violence against Women Act.” The Saint Paul Pioneer Press, October 9, 2000.

Hopf, Ted. “The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory.” International Security 23, no. 1 (1998): 171–200.CrossRef

Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus. Civilizing the Enemy: German Reconstruction and the Invention of the West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2006.

———. “Defending the West: Occidentalism and the Formation of Nato.” Journal of Political Philosophy 11, no. 3 (2003): 223–52.CrossRef

Jahic, Galma, and James O. Finckenauer. “Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking.” Trends in Organized Crime 8, no. 3 (Spring 2005): 24–40.CrossRef

Kelly, Liz. “‘You Can Find Anything You Want’: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe.” International Migration 43, no. 1/2 (January 2005): 235–65.CrossRef

Kempadoo, Kamala. “From Moral Panic to Social Justice: Changing Perspectives on Trafficking.” In Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, edited by Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005.

Laczko, Frank. “Data and Research on Human Trafficking.” International Migration 43, no. 1–2 (2005): 5–16.CrossRef

Laczko, Frank, and Marco A. Gramegna. “Developing Better Indicators of Human Trafficking.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 10, no. 1 (2003): 179–94.

Laffey, Mark, and Jutta Weldes. “Methodological Reflections on Discourse Analysis.” Qualitative Methods 2, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 28–30.

Lloyd, Moya. “(Women’s) Human Rights: Paradoxes and Possibilities.” Review of International Studies 33 (2007): 91–103.CrossRef

Lobasz, Jennifer K. “Beyond Border Security: Feminist Approaches to Human Trafficking.” Security Studies 18, no. 2 (2009): 319–44.CrossRef

———. “Trafficking Scholarship, World-Traveling, and Loving Perception.” Trollhättan, Sweden: Center for Studies of Diversity, Equality and Integration, University West, 2013.

MacIntyre, Alisdair. “The Essential Contestability of Some Social Concepts.” Ethics 84, no. 1 (1973): 1–9.CrossRef

Miller, Ali, and Alison N. Stewart. “Report from the Roundtable on the Meaning of ‘Trafficking in Persons’: A Human Rights Perspective.” Women’s Rights Law Reporter 20, no. 1 (Fall/Winter 1998): 11–20.

Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.CrossRef

Nadelmann, Ethan A. “Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society.” International Organization 44, no. 4 (Autumn 1990): 479–526.CrossRef

O’Connell Davidson, Julia, and Bridget Anderson. “The Trouble with ‘Trafficking’.” In Trafficking and Women’s Rights, edited by Christien L. van der Anker and Jeroen Doomernik. Houndsmills, Basingstroke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

O’Neill Richard, Amy. “International Trafficking in Women to the United States: A Contemporary Manifestation of Slavery and Organized Crime.” In DCI Exceptional Intelligence Analyst Program. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2000.

Peterson, V. Spike. “A ‘Gendered Global Hierarchy’?”. In Contending Images of World Politics, edited by Greg Fry and Jacinta O’Hagan, 199–218. London: Macmillan, 2000.

Quirk, Joel. “Trafficked into Slavery.” Journal of Human Rights 6 (2007): 181–207.CrossRef

Sanghera, Jyoti. “Unpacking the Trafficking Discourse.” In Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, edited by Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik, 3–24. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005.

Savona, Ernesto U., and Sonia Stefanizzi. “Introduction.” Chap. 1 In Measuring Human Trafficking: Complexities and Pitfalls, edited by Ernesto U. Savona and Sonia Stefanizzi, 1–3. New York: Springer, 2007.

Shepherd, Laura J. Gender, Violence and Security: Discourse as Practice. London: Zed Books, 2008.

Tyldum, Guri, and Anette Brunovskis. “Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking.” International Migration 43, no. 1/2 (2005): 17–34.CrossRef

UNESCO Trafficking Project. “Worldwide Trafficking Estimates by Organizations.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Accessed September 29, 2009. http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1963.

United Nations General Assembly. “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.” Accessed September 29, 2009. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4720706c0.html.

United States Department of State. “What Is Modern Slavery?” Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. Accessed September 29, 2009. https://www.state.gov/j/tip/what/.

Weldes, Jutta. “Bureaucratic Politics: A Critical Constructivist Assessment.” Mershon International Studies Review 42, no. 2 (November 1998): 216–25.CrossRef

Weldes, Jutta, Mark Laffey, Hugh Gusterson, and Raymond Duvall, eds. Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities, and the Production of Danger. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

———. “Introduction: Constructing Insecurity.” In Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities and the Production of Danger, 1–33. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Wylie, Gillian. The International Politics of Human Trafficking. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.CrossRef

Title: Trafficking Is Problematic
Author: Jennifer K. Lobasz
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Constructing Human Trafficking
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-91736-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-91737-5

Copyright Year: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91737-5_1

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