Skip to main content
Disciplines
Automotive Business IT + Informatics Construction + Real Estate Electrical Engineering + Electronics Energy + Sustainability Insurance + Risk Finance + Banking Management + Leadership Marketing + Sales Mechanical Engineering + Materials
Events
DE
EN
Books
Journals
Topic Page
Marketing
Start single access now
Access for companies
EXTENDED SEARCH
Log in
Top
Environmental Earth Sciences
Published in: Environmental Earth Sciences 19/2018

01-10-2018 | Original Article

A review of GIS-integrated statistical techniques for groundwater quality evaluation and protection

Authors: Deepesh Machiwal, Vincent Cloutier, Cüneyt Güler, Nerantzis Kazakis

Published in: Environmental Earth Sciences | Issue 19/2018

Log in

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

Water quality evaluation is critically important for the protection and sustainable management of groundwater resources, which are variably vulnerable to ever-increasing human-induced physical and chemical pressures (e.g., overexploitation and pollution of aquifers) and to climate change/variability. Preceding studies have applied a variety of tools and techniques, ranging from conventional to modern, for characterization of the groundwater quality worldwide. Recently, geographic information system (GIS) technology has been successfully integrated with the advanced statistical/geostatistical methods, providing improved interpretation capabilities for the assessment of the water quality over different spatial scales. This review intends to examine the current standing of the GIS-integrated statistical/geostatistical methods applied in hydrogeochemical studies. In this paper, we focus on applications of the time series modeling, multivariate statistical/geostatistical analyses, and artificial intelligence techniques used for groundwater quality evaluation and aquifer vulnerability assessment. In addition, we provide an overview of salient groundwater quality indices developed over the years and employed for the assessment of groundwater quality across the globe. Then, limitations and research gaps of the past studies are outlined and perspectives of the future research needs are discussed. It is revealed that comprehensive applications of the GIS-integrated advanced statistical methods are generally rare in groundwater quality evaluations. One of the major challenges in future research will be implementing procedures of statistical methods in GIS software to enhance analysis capabilities for both spatial and temporal data (multiple sites/stations and time frames) in a simultaneous manner.
previous article Protecting natural landforms and habitats by nourishing an eroding estuarine beach
next article Evaluating the applicability of European karst vulnerability assessment methods to the Yucatan karst, Mexico

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe




 

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now
Literature
Abbasi T, Abbasi SA (2012) Water quality indices. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, p 384
Abbasi S, Mohammadi K, Kholghi MK, Howard K (2013) Aquifer vulnerability assessments using DRASTIC, weights of evidence and the analytic element method. Hydrol Sci J 58(1):186–197
Adeloye AJ, Montaseri M (2002) Preliminary streamflow data analyses prior to water resources planning study. Hydrol Sci J 47(5):679–692
Adhikary PP, Dash CJ, Chandrasekharan H, Rajput TBS, Dubey SK (2012) Evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking using GIS and geostatistics in a peri-urban area of Delhi, India. Arab J Geosci 5:1423–1434
Ağca N, Karanlık S, Ödemiş B (2014) Assessment of ammonium, nitrate, phosphate, and heavy metal pollution in groundwater from Amik Plain, southern Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 186(9):5921–5934
Aguilar JB, Orban P, Dassargues A, Brouyère S (2007) Identification of groundwater quality trends in a chalk aquifer threatened by intensive agriculture in Belgium. Hydrogeol J 15:1615–1627
Ahmed S (2006) Application of Geostatistics in Hydrosciences. In: Thangarajan M (ed) Groundwater resource evaluation, augmentation, contamination, restoration, modeling and management. Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp 78–111
Aller L, Bennett T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ (1985) DRASTIC: a standardized system for evaluating ground water potential using hydrogeological settings. In: EPA/600/285/018, Environmental Research Laboratory. US Environmental Protection Agency, Ada
Alley WM (1993) Regional ground-water quality. Wiley, New York, p 634
Alther GA (1979) A simplified statistical sequence applied to routine water quality analysis—a case history. Ground Water 17(6):556–561
Antonakos AK, Lambrakis NL (2007) Development and testing of three hybrid methods for assessment of aquifer vulnerability to nitrates, based on the DRASTIC model, an example from NE Korinthia, Greece. J Hydrol 333(2–4):288–304
APHA-AWWA-WEF (2017) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 23rd edn. American Public Health Association (APHA)-American Water Works Association (AWWA)-Water Environment Federation (WEF), Washington, DC
ASCE Task Committee (2000) Artificial neural networks in hydrology—I: preliminary concepts. J Hydrol Eng ASCE 5(2):115–123
Ashley RP, Lloyd JW (1978) An example of the use of factor analysis and cluster analysis in groundwater chemistry interpretation. J Hydrol 39:355–364
Assaf H, Saadeh M (2009) Geostatistical assessment of groundwater nitrate contamination with reflection on DRASTIC vulnerability assessment: the case of the Upper Litani Basin, Lebanon. Water Resour Manag 23:775–796
Ayuso SV, Acebes P, López-Archilla AI, Montes C, Guerrero MC (2009) Environmental factors controlling the spatiotemporal distribution of microbial communities in a coastal, sandy aquifer system (Doñana, southwest Spain). Hydrogeol J 17:767–780
Babiker IS, Mohamed MMA, Hiyama T (2007) Assessing groundwater quality using GIS. Water Resour Manag 21:699–715
Backman B, Bodiš D, Lahermo P, Rapant S, Tarvainen T (1998) Application of a groundwater contamination index in Finland and Slovakia. Environ Geol 36(1–2):55–64
Banoeng-Yakubo B, Yidana SM, Emmanuel N, Akabzaa T, Asiedu D (2009) Analysis of groundwater quality using water quality index and conventional graphical methods: the Volta region, Ghana. Environ Earth Sci 59(4):867–879
Barca E, Passarella G (2008) Spatial evaluation of the risk of groundwater quality degradation. A comparison between disjunctive kriging and geostatistical simulation. Environ Monit Assess 137:261–273
Bárdossy A (2011) Interpolation of groundwater quality parameters with some values below the detection limit. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 15:2763–2775
Bárdossy A, Kundzewicz ZW (1990) Geostatistical methods for detection of outliers in groundwater quality spatial fields. J Hydrol 115:343–359
Berzas JJ, Garcia LF, Rodriguez RC, Martinalvarez PJ (2000) Evolution of the water quality of a managed natural wetland: Tablas de Daimiel National Park (Spain). Water Res 34(12):3161–3170
Bethea RM, Rhinehart RR (1991) Applied engineering statistics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York
Bjerg PL, Christensen TH (1992) Spatial and temporal small-scale variation in groundwater quality of a shallow sandy aquifer. J Hydrol 131:133–149
Bodrud-Doza Md, Islam ARMT, Ahmed F, Das S, Saha N, Rahman MS (2016) Characterization of groundwater quality using water evaluation indices, multivariate statistics and geostatistics in central Bangladesh. Water Sci 30:19–40
Bondu R, Cloutier V, Rosa E, Benzaazoua M (2017) Mobility and speciation of geogenic arsenic in bedrock groundwater from the Canadian Shield in western Quebec, Canada. Sci Total Environ 574:509–519
Box GEP, Cox DR (1964) An analysis of transformations. J R Stat Soc Ser B 26(2):211–252
Box GEP, Hunter WG, Hunter JS (1978) Statistics for experimenters: an introduction to design, data analysis, and model building. Wiley Interscience, New York
Boy-Roura M, Nolan BT, Menció A, Mas-Pla J (2013) Regression model for aquifer vulnerability assessment of nitrate pollution in the Osona region (NE Spain). J Hydrol 505:150–162
Bras RL, Rodriguez-Iturbe I (1985) Random functions and hydrology. Addison-Wesley, Reading
Bronson KF, Malapati A, Booker JD, Scanlon BR, Hudnall WH, Schurbert AM (2009) Residual soil nitrate in irrigated Southern High Plains cotton fields and Ogallala groundwater nitrate. J Soil Water Conserv 64(2):98–104
Brown CE (1998) Applied multivariate statistics in geohydrology and related sciences, 1st edn. Springer, New York
Buragohain M, Bhuyan B, Sarma HP (2010) Seasonal variations of lead, arsenic, cadmium and aluminium contamination of groundwater in Dhemaji district, Assam, India. Environ Monit Assess 170:345–351
Burrough PA, McDonnell RA (1998) Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 333 pp
Busico G, Kazakis N, Colombani N, Mastrocicco M, Voudouris K, Tedesco D (2017) A modified SINTACS method for groundwater vulnerability and pollution risk assessment in highly anthropized regions based on NO3 – and SO4 2– concentrations. Sci Total Environ 609:1512–1523
Busico G, Cuoco E, Kazakis N, Colombani N, Mastrocicco M, Tedesco D, Voudouris K (2018) Multivariate statistical analysis to characterize/discriminate between anthropogenic and geogenic trace element occurrence in Campania Plain, Southern Italy. Environ Pollut 234:260–269
Cairns SH, Dickson KL, Atkinson SF (1997) An examination of measuring selected water quality trophic indicators with SPOT satellite HRV data. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 63(3):263–265
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2001) Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life. CCME Water Quality Index 1.0, Technical Report, in Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, Canada
Candela L, Olea RA, Custodio E (1988) Lognormal kriging for the assessment of reliability in groundwater quality control observation networks. J Hydrol 103:67–84
Castrignanò A, Giugliarini L, Risaliti R, Martinelli N (2000) Study of spatial relationships among some soil physicochemical properties of a field in central Italy using multivariate geostatistics. Geoderma 97:39–60
Chachadi AG, Lobo-Ferreira JP (2001) Seawater intrusion vulnerability mapping of aquifers using the GALDIT method. In: Proceedings of the workshop on modelling in hydrogeology, Anna University, Chennai, pp 143–156
Chang K-T (2002) Introduction to geographic information systems. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, p 348
Chaudhuri S, Ale S, Delaune P, Rajan N (2012) Spatio-temporal variability in groundwater nitrate concentration in Texas: 1960–2010. J Environ Qual 41:1806–1817
Chen H, Druliner AD (1988) Agricultural chemical contamination of ground water in six areas of the high plains aquifer, Nebraska. National Water Summary 1986—hydrologic events and ground-water quality, water-supply Paper 2325. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston
Chen L, Feng Q (2013) Geostatistical analysis of temporal and spatial variations in groundwater levels and quality in the Minqin Oasis, Northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 70(3):1367–1378
Chen Y, Takara K, Cluckie ID, Smedt FHD (eds) (2004) GIS and remote sensing in hydrology, Water resources and environment. IAHS Publication No. 289. IAHS Press, Wallingford, p 422
Chou CJ (2006) Assessing spatial, temporal, and analytical variation of groundwater chemistry in a large nuclear complex, USA. Environ Monit Assess 119:571–598
Civita M, De Maio M (2004) Assessing and mapping groundwater vulnerability to contamination: the Italian “combined” approach. Geofísica Internacional 43(4):513–532
Clark D (1975) Understanding canonical correlation analysis. Concepts and techniques in modern geography No. 3, geo abstracts. University of East Anglia, Norwich
Clarke RT (1998) Stochastic processes for water scientists: development and applications. Wiley, New York
Cloutier V, Lefebvre R, Therrien R, Savard MM (2008) Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. J Hydrol 353:294–313
Cohen DB, Fisher C, Reid ML (1986) Ground-water contamination by toxic substances: a california assessment. In: Garner WY, Honeycutt RC, Nigg HN (eds) Evaluation of pesticides in ground water, ACS Symposium Series 315. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 499–529
Collins WD (1923) Graphic representation of water analyses. Ind Eng Chem 15(4):394
Cooley WW, Lohnes PR (1971) Multivariate data analysis. Wiley, New York
Cooper RM, Istok JD (1988a) Geostatistics applied to groundwater contamination. I: methodology. J Environ Engin ASCE 111(2):270–286
Cooper RM, Istok JD (1988b) Geostatistics applied to groundwater contamination. II. Appl J Environ Eng ASCE 111(2):287–299
Council of Canadian Academies (2009) The sustainable management of groundwater in canada. Report of the expert panel on groundwater. Council of Canadian Academies, Ottawa
Cryer JD (1986) Time series analysis. PWS Publishers, Duxbury Press, Boston
D’Agostino V, Greene EA, Passarella G, Vurro M (1998) Spatial and temporal study of nitrate concentration in groundwater by means of coregionalization. Environ Geol 36(3–4):285–295
Dalton MG, Upchurch SB (1978) Interpretation of hydrochemical facies by factor analysis. Ground Water 16(4):228–233
David M (1977) Geostatistical ore reserve estimation. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, p 364
David M, Dagbert M (1975) Lakeview revisited: variograms and correspondence analysis-new tools for the understanding of geochemical data. In: Proceedings of the 5th international geochemical exploration symposium, geochemical exploration, pp 163–181
Davies PJ, Crosbie RS (2018) Mapping the spatial distribution of chloride deposition across Australia. J Hydrol 561:76–88
Davis JC (1986) Statistics and data analysis in geology, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York
Dawdy DR, Feth JH (1967) Applications of factor analysis in study of chemistry of ground water quality, Mojave River Valley, California. Water Resour Res 3(2):505–510
Dean JD, Huyakorn PS, Donigian AS Jr, Voos KA, Schanz RW, Meeks YJ, Carsel RF (1989) Risk of unsaturated/saturated transport and transformation of chemical concentrations (RUSTIC). Volumes I and II. EPA/600/3–89/048a. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens
Delhomme JP (1978) Kriging in hydrosciences. Adv Water Resour 1:251–266
Denny SC, Allen DM, Journeay JM (2007) DRASTIC-Fm: a modified vulnerability mapping method for structurally controlled aquifers in the southern Gulf Islands, British Columbia, Canada. Hydrogeol J 15:483–493
Deutsch WJ (1997) Groundwater geochemistry: fundamentals and applications to contamination. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, p 221
Dillon R, Goldstein M (1984) multivariate analyses: methods and applications. Wiley, New York
Dixon B (2005a) Groundwater vulnerability mapping: A GIS and fuzzy rule based integrated tool. J Appl Geogr 25:327–347
Dixon B (2005b) Applicability of neuro-fuzzy techniques in predicting groundwater vulnerability: a GIS-based sensitivity analysis. J Hydrol 309(1–4):17–38
Dixon B (2009) A case study using support vector machines, neural networks and logistic regression in a GIS to identify wells contaminated with NO3-N. Hydrogeol J 17:1507–1520
Doerfliger N, Jeannin PY, Zwahlen F (1999) Water vulnerability assessment in karst environments: a new method of defining protection areas using a multi-attribute approach and GIS tools (EPIK method). Environ Geol 39(2):165–176
Dojlido J, Raniszewsk IJ, Woyciechowska J (1994) Water quality index —application for rivers in Vistula river basin in Poland. Water Sci Technol 30:57–64
Dragon K (2006) Application of factor analysis to study contamination of a semi-confined aquifer (Wielkopolska Buried Valley aquifer, Poland). J Hydrol 331:272–279
Drozdov OA, Shepelevskii AA (1946) The theory of interpolation in a stochastic field of meteorological elements and its application to meteorological maps and network rationalization problems (in Russian). Trudy NIU GUGMS Series, 1(13), Russian Hydrological and Meteorological Service, Russia
Eheart JW, Cieniawski SE, Ranjithan S (1993) Genetic-algorithm-based design of groundwater quality monitoring system. WRC Research Report No. 218, Water Resources Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews. Avenue Urbana Illinois 61801, p 50
Elçi A, Ayvaz MT (2014) Differential-evolution algorithm based optimization for the site selection of groundwater production wells with the consideration of the vulnerability concept. J Hydrol 511:736–749
El-Fadel M, Tomaszkiewicz M, Adra Y, Sadek S, Najm MA (2014) GIS-based assessment for the development of a groundwater quality index towards sustainable aquifer management. Water Resour Manag 28:3471–3487
Enfield CG, Carsel RF, Cohen SZ, Phan T, Walters DM (1982) Approximating pollutant transport to ground water. Ground Water 20(6):711–722
Enwright N, Hudak PF (2009) Spatial distribution of nitrate and related factors in the high plains aquifer. Texas Environ Geol 58:1541–1548
Farnham M, Klaus JS, Ashok KS, Johannesson KH (2000) Deciphering groundwater flow systems in Oasis Valley, Nevada, using trace element chemistry, multivariate statistics, and geographical information system. Math Geol 32(8):943–968
Farnham M, Singh AK, Stetzenbach KJ, Johannesson KH (2002) Treatment of nondetects in multivariate analysis of groundwater geochemistry data. Chemometr Intell Lab Syst 60:265–281
Felmy AR, Girvin DC, Jenne EA (1983) MINTEQ: A Computer Program for Calculating Aqueous Geochemical Equilibria. EPA/600/3–84/032, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC
Ferguson G, Gleeson T (2012) Vulnerability of coastal aquifers to groundwater use and climate change. Nat Clim Change 2:342–345
Fijani E, Nadiri AA, Moghaddam AA, Tsai FT-C, Dixon B (2013) Optimization of DRASTIC method by supervised committee machine artificial intelligence to assess groundwater vulnerability for Maragheh-Bonab plain aquifer, Iran. J Hydrol 503:89–100
Forina M, Armanino C, Raggio V (2002) Clustering with dendrograms on interpretation variables. Anal Chim Acta 454(1):13–19
Foster SSD (1987) Fundamental concepts in aquifer vulnerability, pollution risk and protection strategy. In: Van Duijvenbooden W, and Waegeningh HG (eds), Vulnerability of soil and groundwater to pollutants. In: TNO committee on hydrological research, the Hague, Proc. Inf., vol 38, pp 69–86
Frans L (2008) Trends of pesticides and nitrate in ground water of the Central Columbia Plateau, Washington, 1993–2003. J Environ Qual 37:273–280
Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979) Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs
Gan Y, Zhao K, Deng Y, Liang X, Ma T, Wang Y (2018) Groundwater flow and hydrogeochemical evolution in the Jianghan Plain, central China. Hydrogeol J 26(5):1609–1623
Gandin LS (1965) Objective analysis of meteorological fields. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, p 242
Gemitzi A, Petalas C, Tsihrintzis VA, Pisinaras V (2006) Assessment of groundwater vulnerability to pollution: a combination of GIS, fuzzy logic and decision making techniques. Environ Geol 49:653–673
Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170:1088–1090
Giggenbach WF (1988) Geothermal solute equilibria. Derivation of Na-K-Mg-Ca geoindicators. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 52(12):2749–2765
Gilbert RO (1987) Statistical methods for environmental pollution monitoring. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Giles BD, Flocas AA (1984) Air temperature variation in Greece, Part-I: persistence, trend and fluctuations. Int J Climatol 4:531–539
Giri S, Singh G, Gupta SK, Jha VN, Tripathi RM (2010) An evaluation of metal contamination in surface and groundwater around a proposed uranium mining site, Jharkhand, India. Mine Water Environ 29(3):225–234
Gleeson T, VanderSteen J, Sophocleous MA, Taniguchi M, Alley WM, Allen DM, Zhou Y (2010) Groundwater sustainability strategies. Nat Geosci 3:378–379
Gogu RC, Dassargues A (2000) Current trends and future challenges in groundwater vulnerability assessment using overlay and index methods. Environ Geol 39(6):549–559
Goldscheider N, Klute M, Sturm S, Hotzl H (2000) The PI method—a GIS-based approach to mapping groundwater vulnerability with special consideration of karst aquifers. Z Angew Geol 46(3):157–166
Gong X, Richman MB (1995) On the application of cluster analysis to growing season precipitation data in North America East of the Rockies. J Clim 8:897–931
Goodchild MF, Parks BO, Steyaert LT (eds) (1993) Environmental modeling with GIS. Oxford University Press, New York
Goovaerts P (1999) Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art and perspectives. Geoderma 89:1–45
Güler C, Thyne GD (2004a) Hydrologic and geologic factors controlling surface and groundwater chemistry in Indian Wells-Owens Valley area, southeastern California, USA. J Hydrol 285(1–4):177–198
Güler C, Thyne GD, McCray JE, Turner AK (2002) Evaluation of graphical and multivariate statistical methods for classification of water chemistry data. Hydrogeol J 10(4):455–474
Güler C, Kurt MA, Alpaslan M, Akbulut C (2012) Assessment of the impact of anthropogenic activities on the groundwater hydrology and chemistry in Tarsus coastal plain (Mersin, SE Turkey) using fuzzy clustering, multivariate statistics and GIS techniques. J Hydrol 414–415:435–451
Güler C, Thyne GD, Tağa H, Yıldırım Ü (2017) Processes governing alkaline groundwater chemistry within a fractured rock (ophiolitic mélange) aquifer underlying a seasonally inhabited headwater area in the Aladağlar Range (Adana, Turkey). Geofluids. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2017/​3153924 (article ID 3153924)CrossRef
Gurdak JJ, McMahon PB, Bruce BW (2012) Vulnerability of groundwater quality to human activity and climate change and variability, high plains aquifer, USA. In: Treidel H, Martin-Bordes JL, Gurdak JJ (eds) Climate Change effects on groundwater resources—a global synthesis of findings and recommendations. Taylor & Francis Group, London, pp 145–168
Gurnell AM, Montgomery DR (eds) (2000) Hydrological applications of GIS. Wiley, Chichester, p 176
Haan CT (1977) Statistical methods in hydrology. Iowa State University Press, Iowa
Hanh TM, Sthiannopkao P, The Ba S, D. and Kim K-W (2011) Development of water quality indexes to identify pollutants in Vietnam’s surface water. J Environ Eng ASCE 137(4):273–283
Hardy A (1996) On the number of clusters. Comput Stat Data Anal 23:83–96
Hartigan A (1975) Clustering algorithms. Wiley, New York
Hassan MM, Atkins PJ (2007) Arsenic risk mapping in Bangladesh: A simulation technique of cokriging estimation from regional count data. J Environ Sci Health Part A Toxic/Hazard Substan Environ Engin 42(12):1719–1728
Helsel DR, Frans LM (2006) Regional Kendall test for trend. Environ Sci Technol 40(13):4066–4073
Helstrup T, Jørgensen NO, Banoeng-Yakubo B (2007) Investigation of hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater from the Cretaceous-Eocene limestone aquifer in southern Ghana and southern Togo using hierarchical cluster analysis. Hydrogeol J 15:977–989
Hem JD (1970) Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water, 2nd edition, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1473, Washington DC
Hem JD (1985) Study and Interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. 3rd edition, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2254, Washington DC
Horton RK (1965) An index number system for rating water quality. J Water Pollut Control Fed 37(3):300–306
Hosseini SM, Mahjouri N (2014) Developing a fuzzy neural network-based support vector regression (FNN-SVR) for regionalizing nitrate concentration in groundwater. Environ Monit Assess 186:3685–3699
Hotelling H (1936) Relations between two sets of variates. Biometrika 28:312–377
Hoyer BE, Hallberg GR (1991) Ground water vulnerability regions of iowa, special map 11. Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Iowa City
Hudak PF (2000a) Sulfate and chloride concentrations in Texas aquifer. Environ Int 26:55–61
Hudak PF (2000b) Regional trends in nitrate content of Texas groundwater. J Hydrol 228:37–47
Hudak PF (2001) Water hardness and sodium trends in Texas aquifers. Environ Monit Assess 68:177–185
Iskandar I, Koike K (2011) Distinguishing potential sources of arsenic released to groundwater around a fault zone containing a mine site. Environ Earth Sci 63:595–608
Iskandar I, Koike K, Sendjaja P (2012) Identifying groundwater arsenic contamination mechanisms in relation to arsenic concentrations in water and host rocks. Environ Earth Sci 65:2015–2026
Istok JD, Cooper RM (1988) Geostatistics applied to groundwater contamination. III: global estimates. J Environ Engin ASCE 111(2):915–928
Istok JD, Rautman CA (1996) Probabilistic assessment of ground-water contamination: 2. Results of case study. Ground Water 34(6):1050–1064
Istok JD, Smyth JD, Flint FL (1993) Multivariate geostatistical analysis of ground-water contamination: a case history. Ground Water 31(1):63–74
Izenman AJ (2013) Modern multivariate statistical techniques: regression, classification, and manifold learning, 2nd edn. Springer, New York
Jang C-S (2013) Use of multivariate indicator kriging methods for assessing groundwater contamination extents for irrigation. Environ Monit Assess 185:4049–4061
Jang C-S, Liu C-W, Lu KL, Lin CC (2007) Delimitation of arsenic-contaminated groundwater using risk-based indicator approaches around blackfoot disease hyperendemic areas of southern Taiwan. Environ Monit Assess 134:293–304
Jang C-S, Chen C-F, Liang C-P, Chen J-S (2016) Combining groundwater quality analysis and a numerical flow simulation for spatially establishing utilization strategies for groundwater and surface water in the Pingtung Plain. J Hydrol 533:541–556
Javadi S, Hashemy SM, Mohammadi K, Howard KWF, Neshat A (2017) Classification of aquifer vulnerability using K-means cluster analysis. J Hydrol 549:27–37
Jha MK, Chowdhury A, Chowdary VM, Peiffer S (2007) Groundwater management and development by integrated remote sensing and geographic information systems: prospects and constraints. Water Resour Manag 21(2):427–467
Johnson RA, Wichern DW (1992) Applied multivariate statistical analysis, 3rd edn. Prentice-Hall International, Englewood Cliffs, p 642
Jones AL, Smart PL (2005) Spatial and temporal changes in the structure of groundwater nitrate concentration time series (1935–1999) as demonstrated by autoregressive modeling. J Hydrol 310:201–215
Journel A (1974) Geostatistics for conditional simulation of orebodies. Econ Geol 69(5):673–687
Journel AG, Huijbregts CJ (1978) Mining geostatistics. Academic Press, London, p 600
Kagan RL (1967) Some problems relative to the interpretation of rainfall data (in Russian). Trudy GGO 208:64–75
Kallio MP, Mujunen SP, Hatzimihalis G, Koutoufides P, Minkkinen P, Wilki PJ, Connor MA (1999) Multivariate data analysis of key pollutants in sewage samples: a case study. Anal Chim Acta 393(1–3):181–191
Kaown D, Hyun Y, Bae G-O, Oh CW, Lee K-K (2012) Evaluation of spatio-temporal trends of groundwater quality in different land uses using Kendall test. Geosci J 16(1):65–75
Karanth KR (1987) Ground water assessment: development and management. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, p 720
Kavouri K, Plagnes V, Tremoulet J, Dorfliger N, Rejiba F, Marchet P (2011) PaPRIKa: a method for estimating karst resource and source vulnerability—application to the Ouysse karst system (southwest France). Hydrogeol J 19:339–353
Kazakis N, Voudouris KS (2015) Groundwater vulnerability and pollution risk assessment of porous aquifers to nitrate: modifying the DRASTIC method using quantitative parameters. J Hydrol 525:13–25
Kazakis N, Kantiranis N, Voudouris KS, Mitrakas M, Kaprara E, Pavlou A (2015) Geogenic Cr oxidation on the surface of mafic minerals and the hydrogeological conditions influencing hexavalent chromium concentrations in groundwater. Sci Total Environ 514:224–238
Kazakis N, Kantiranis N, Kalaitzidou K, Kaprara Ε, Mitrakas M, Frei R, Vargemezis G, Tsourlos P, Zouboulis A, Filippidis A (2017) Origin of hexavalent chromium in groundwater: the example of Sarigkiol Basin, Northern Greece. Sci Total Environ 593–594:552–566
Kazakis N, Spiliotis M, Voudouris K, Pliakas FK, Papadopoulos B (2018a) A fuzzy multicriteria categorization of the GALDIT method to assess seawater intrusion vulnerability of coastal aquifers. Sci Total Environ 621:552–566
Kazakis N, Chalikakis K, Mazzilli N, Ollivier C, Manakos A, Voudouris K (2018b) Management and research strategies of karst aquifers in Greece: Literature overview and exemplification based on hydrodynamic modelling and vulnerability assessment of a strategic karst aquifer. Sci Total Environ 643:592–609
Kendall MG (1973) Time series. Charles Griffin and Co. Ltd., London
Ketata M, Gueddari M, Bouhlila R (2012) Use of geographical information system and water quality index to assess groundwater quality in El Khairat deep aquifer (Enfidha, Central East Tunisia). Arab J Geosci 5:1379–1390
Khan HH, Khan A, Ahmed S, Perrin J (2011) GIS-based impact assessment of land-use changes on groundwater quality: study from a rapidly urbanizing region of South India. Environ Earth Sci 63:1289–1302
Kim TH, Chung SY, Park N, Hamm S-Y, Lee SY, Kim B-W (2012) Combined analyses of chemometrics and kriging for identifying groundwater contamination sources and origins at the Masan coastal area in Korea. Environ Earth Sci 67(5):1373–1388
Kissel DE, Bidwell OW, Kientz JF (1982) Leaching classes in Kansas Soils. Bulletin No. 641. Kansas State University, Manhattan
Konikow L, Kendy L (2005) Groundwater depletion: a global problem. Hydrogeol J 13(1):317–320
Kumar S, Machiwal D, Dayal D (2017) Spatial modeling of rainfall trends using satellite datasets and geographic information system. Hydrol Sci J 62(10):1636–1653
Kurumbein WC, Graybill FA (1965) An introduction to statistical models in geology. McGraw-Hill, New York
Lambrakis N, Antonakos A, Panagopoulos G (2004) The use of multicomponent statistical analysis in hydrogeological environmental research. Water Res 38:1862–1872
Langelier W, Ludwig H (1942) Graphical methods for indicating the mineral character of natural waters. J Am Water Assoc 34:335–352
Li P, Wu J, Qian H, Lyu X, Liu H (2014) Origin and assessment of groundwater pollution and associated health risk: a case study in an industrial park, northwest China. Environ Geochem Health 36(4):693–712
Lin CY, Abdullah MH, Praveena SM, Yahaya AHB, Musta B (2012) Delineation of temporal variability and governing factors influencing the spatial variability of shallow groundwater chemistry in a tropical sedimentary island. J Hydrol 432–433:26–42
Lo CP, Yeung AKW (2003) Concepts and techniques of geographic information systems. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p 492
Loftis JC (1996) Trends in groundwater quality. Hydrol Process 10:335–355
Lopez B, Baran N, Bourgine B (2015) An innovative procedure to assess multi-scale temporal trends in groundwater quality: example of the nitrate in the Seine-Normandy basin, France. J Hydrol 522:1–10
Lumb A, Sharma TC, Bibeault J-F (2011) A review of genesis and evolution of water quality index (WQI) and some future directions. Water Qual Exposure Health 3:1–14
Machiwal D, Jha MK (2006) Time series analysis of hydrologic data for water resources planning and management: a review. J Hydrol Hydromech 54(3):237–257
Machiwal D, Jha MK (2010) Tools and techniques for water quality interpretation. In: Krantzberg G, Tanik A, Antunes do Carmo JS, Indarto A, Ekdal A (eds) Advances in water quality control. Scientific Research Publishing, Inc., USA, pp 211–252
Machiwal D, Jha MK (2012) Hydrologic time series analysis: theory and practice. Springer, the Netherlands and Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, p 303
Machiwal D, Jha MK (2014) Role of geographical information system for water quality evaluation. In: Nielson D (ed) Geographic information systems (GIS): techniques, applications and technologies. Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA, pp 217–278
Machiwal D, Jha MK (2015) Identifying sources of groundwater contamination in a hard-rock aquifer system using multivariate statistical analyses and GIS-based geostatistical modeling techniques. J Hydrol Reg Stud 4(A):80–110
Machiwal D, Jha MK, Mal BC (2011) GIS-based assessment and characterization of groundwater quality in a hard-rock hilly terrain of Western India. Environ Monit Assess 174:645–663
MacQueen J (1967) Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations. In: Le Cam L.M, Neyman J (eds). In: Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley symposium on mathematical statistics and probability, vol 1, University of California Press, Berkeley, California, pp 281–297
Mair A, El-Kadi AI (2013) Logistic regression modeling to assess groundwater vulnerability to contamination in Hawaii, USA. J Contam Hydrol 153:1–23
Malapati A, Bronson KF, Booker JD, Hudnall WH, Schubert AM (2011) Soil profile sulfate in irrigated Southern High Plains cotton fields and Ogallala aquifer. J Soil Water Conserv 66(5):287–294
Margat J (1968) Groundwater vulnerability maps. Conception-estimation-mapping. EEC Institut Europeen de l’ Eau, Paris (in French)
Marko K, Al-Amri NS, Elfeki AMM (2014) Geostatistical analysis using GIS for mapping groundwater quality: case study in the recharge area of Wadi Usfan, western Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci 7(12):5239–5252
Masoud AA, Koike K, Mashaly HA, Gergis F (2016) Spatio-temporal trends and change factors of groundwater quality in an arid area with peat rich aquifers: Emergence of water environmental problems in Tanta District, Egypt. J Arid Environ 124:360–376
Masoud AA, El-Horiny MM, Atwia MG, Gemail KS, Koike K (2018) Assessment of groundwater and soil quality degradation using multivariate and geostatistical analyses, Dakhla Oasis, Egypt. J Afr Earth Sci 142:64–81
Matheron G (1965) Lee Variables Regionalisées et leur Estimation. Masson, Paris, p 306
Matheron G (1973) The intrinsic random functions and their applications. Adv Appl Prob 5:439–468
McBride GB (2005) Using statistical methods for water quality management: issues, problems and solutions. Wiley, New York
McCuen RH (2003) Modeling hydrologic change: statistical methods. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press LLC, Florida
Melloul A, Collin M (1992) The ‘principal components’ statistical method as a complementary approach to geochemical methods in water quality factor identification; Application to the Coastal Plain aquifer of Israel. J Hydrol 140:49–73
Melloul AJ, Collin M (1998) A proposed index for aquifer water quality assessment: the case of Israel’s Sharon region. J Environ Manag 54:131–142
Mendizabal I, Baggelaar PK, Stuyfzand PJ (2012) Hydrochemical trends for public supply well fields in The Netherlands (1898–2008), natural backgrounds and upscaling to groundwater bodies. J Hydrol 450–451:279–292
Mendoza GA, Martins H (2006) Multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management: a critical review of methods and new modelling paradigms. For Ecol Manag 230:1–22
Meng SX, Maynard JB (2001) Use of statistical analysis to formulate conceptual models of geochemical behavior: Water chemical data from the Botucatu aquifer in São Paulo state, Brazil. J Hydrol 250:78–97
Mirzaei R, Sakizadeh M (2016) Comparison of interpolation methods for the estimation of groundwater contamination in Andimeshk-Shush Plain, Southwest of Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(3):2758–2769
Mohammadi K, Niknam R, Majd VJ (2009) Aquifer vulnerability assessment using GIS and fuzzy system: a case study in Tehran-Karaj aquifer. Iran Environ Geol 58:437–446
Molina M, Aburto FN, Calderan RL, Cazanga M, Escudey M (2009) Trace element composition of selected fertilizers used in Chile: phosphorus fertilizers as a source of long-term soil contamination. Soil Sediment Contam 18:497–511
Moore JS (1988) SEEPPAGE: a system for early evaluation of pollution potential of agricultural ground water environments. Geology Technical Note 5 (Revision 1), US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC
Mouser PJ, Hession WC, Rizzo DM, Gotelli NJ (2005) Hydrology and geostatistics of a Vermont, USA Kettlehole Peatland. J Hydrol 301:250–266
Myers DE, Begovich CL, Butz TR, Kane VE (1982) Variogram models for regional groundwater geochemical data. Math Geol 14(6):629–644
Nadiri AA, Sedghi Z, Khatibi R, Gharekhani M (2017) Mapping vulnerability of multiple aquifers using multiple models and fuzzy logic to objectively derive model structures. Sci Total Environ 593–594:75–90
Narany TS, Ramli MF, Aris AZ, Sulaiman WNA, Fakharian K (2014) Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality using integrated multivariate statistical and geostatistical approaches in Amol-Babol Plain, Iran. Environ Monit Assess 186:5797–5815
Nas B, Berktay A (2010) Groundwater quality mapping in urban groundwater using GIS. Environ Monit Assess 160:215–227
Nasiri F, Maqsood I, Huang G, Fuller N (2007) Water quality index: A fuzzy river-pollution decision support expert system. J Water Resour Plan Manag ASCE 133(2):95–105
National Research Council (1993) Groundwater vulnerability assessment, contaminant potential under conditions of uncertainty. National Academy Press, Washington DC
Niu B, Loáiciga HA, Wang Z, Zhan FB, Hong S (2014) Twenty years of global groundwater research: a science citation index expanded-based bibliometric survey (1993–2012). J Hydrol 519:966–975
Nobre RCM, Rotunno Filho OC, Mansur WJ, Nobre MMM, Cosenza CAN (2007) Groundwater vulnerability and risk mapping using GIS, modeling and a fuzzy logic tool. J Contam Hydrol 94:277–292
Nriagu JO, Nieboer E (1988) Chromium in the natural and human environments. Wiley-Interscience, New York
Nshagali BG, Nouck PN, Meli’i JL, Arétouyap Z, Manguelle-Dicoum E (2015) High iron concentration and pH change detected using statistics and geostatistics in crystalline basement equatorial region. Environ Earth Sci 73(11):7135–7145
Ochsenkühn M, Kontoyannakos J, Ochsenkühn-Petropulu M (1997) A new approach to a hydrochemical study of groundwater flow. J Hydrol 194:64–75
Oleson SG, Carr JR (1990) Correspondence analysis of water quality data: Implications for fauna deaths at Stillwater Lakes, Neveda. Math Geol 22:665–698
Otto M (1998) Multivariate methods. In: Kellner R, Mermet JM, Otto M, Widmer HM (eds) Analytical chemistry. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, p 916
Pacheco FAL (1998) Finding the number of natural clusters in groundwater data sets using the concept of equivalence class. Comput Geosci 24(1):7–15
Pacheco FAL, Pires LMGR, Santos RMB, Sanches Fernandes LF (2015) Factor weighting in DRASTIC modeling. Sci Total Environ 505:474–486
Panagopoulos G, Antonakos A, Lambrakis N (2006) Optimization of the DRASTIC method for groundwater vulnerability assessment via the use of simple statistical methods and GIS. Hydrogeol J 14:894–911
Paradis D, Vigneault H, Lefebvre R, Savard MM, Ballard J-M, Qian B (2016) Groundwater nitrate concentration evolution under climate change and agricultural adaptation scenarios: Prince Edward Island, Canada. Earth Syst Dyn 7(1):183–202
Park S-C, Yun S-T, Chae G-T, Yoo I-S, Shin K-S, Heo C-H, Lee S-K (2005) Regional hydrochemical study on salinization of coastal aquifers, western coastal area of South Korea. J Hydrol 313:182–194
Parkhurst DL, Thorstenson DC, Plummer LN (1980) PHREEQE: a computer program for geochemical calculations. Water resources investigations report 80–96, United States Geological Survey, NTIS Technical Report, PB81-167801, Springfield, Virginia 22161, p 210
Parkhurst DL, Plummer LN, Thorstenson DC (1982) BALANCE: a computer program for calculating mass transfer for geochemical reactions in ground water. Water resources investigations Report 82–14, United States Geological Survey, NTIS Technical Report, PB82-255902, Springfield, Virginia 22161, p 27
Passarella G, Vurro M, D’Agostino V, Giuliano G, Barcelona MJ (2002) A probabilistic methodology to assess the risk of groundwater quality degradation. Environ Monit Assess 79:57–74
Pebesma EJ, de Kwaadsteniet JW (1997) Mapping groundwater quality in the Netherlands. J Hydrol 200:364–386
Pételet-Giraud E, Dörfliger N, Crochet P (2000) RISKE: method d’évaluation multicritère de la vulnérabilité des aquifers karstiques. Application aux systèmes des Fontanilles et Cent-Fonts (Hérault, Sud de la France) [Risk: methodology for multicriteria evaluation of the vulnerability of karst aquifers. Application to systems Fontanilles and Cent-Fonts Fontanilles (Herault, southern France]. Hydrogéologie 4:71–88
Petrişor A-I, Ianoş I, Iurea D, Văidianu MN (2012) Applications of principal component analysis integrated with GIS. Proc Environ Sci 14:247–256
Pettyjohn WA, Savoca M, Self D (1991) Regional assessment of aquifer vulnerability and sensitivity in the conterminous United States. Report EPA-600/2–91/043, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Ada, Oklahoma
Piper AM (1944) A graphical procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water analysis. Am Geophysi Union Trans 25:914–928
Pique A, Grandia F, Canals A (2010) Processes releasing arsenic to groundwater in the Caldes de Malavella geothermal area, NE Spain. Water Res 44:5618–5630
Pirkle FL, Howell JA, Wecksung GW, Duran BS, Stablein NK (1984) An example of cluster analysis applied to a large geologic data set: aerial radiometric data from Copper Mountain, Wyoming. Math Geol 16(5):479–498
Plummer LN, Prestemon EC, Parkhurst DL (1991) An Interactive Code (NETPATH) for Modeling Net Geochemical Reactions along a Flow Path. Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4078, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 22092, p 227
Postma D, Larsen F, Thai NT, Pham TKT, Jakobsen R, Nhan PQ, Long TV, Viet PH, Murray AS (2012) Groundwater arsenic concentrations in Vietnam controlled by sediment age. Nat Geosci 5(9):656–661
Prati L, Pavanello R, Pesarin F (1971) Assessment of surface water quality by a single index of pollution. Water Res 5:741–751
Rainwater FH, Thatcher LL (1960) Methods for Collection and Analysis of Water Samples. 1st edition, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1454, Washington, DC
Ramakrishnaiah CR, Sadashivaiah C, Ranganna G (2009) Assessment of water quality index for the groundwater in Tumkur taluk, Karnataka state, India. E J Chem 6(2):523–530
Ramesh S, Sumukaran N, Murugesan AG, Rajan MP (2010) An innovative approach of drinking water quality index—a case study from southern Tamil Nadu, India. Ecol Ind 10:857–868
Ramos Leal JA, Barrón Romero LE, Sandoval Montes I (2004) Combined use of aquifer contamination risk maps and contamination indexes in the design of water quality monitoring networks in Mexico. Geofísica Internacional 43(4):641–650
Rao SN, Rao SP, Varma D (2013) Spatial variations of groundwater vulnerability using cluster analysis. J Geol Soc India 81:685–697
Rautman CA, Istok JD (1996) Probabilistic assessment of ground-water contamination: 1. Geostatistical framework. Ground Water 34(5):899–909
Reghunath R, Murthy TRS, Raghavan BR (2002) The utility of multivariate statistical techniques in hydrogeochemical studies: an example from Karnataka, India. Water Res 36:2437–2442
Ribeiro L, Macedo ME (1995) Application of multivariate statistics, trend- and cluster analysis to groundwater quality in the Tejo and Sado aquifer. In: Proceedings of the Prague conference on groundwater quality: remediation and protection. IAHS Publication No. 225, Prague, pp 39–47
Riley JA, Steinhorst RK, Winter GV, Williams RE (1990) Statistical analysis of the hydrochemistry of ground waters in Columbia River basalts. J Hydrol 119:245–262
Rouhani S, Hall TJ (1988) Geostatistical schemes for groundwater sampling. J Hydrol 103:85–102
Rupert MG (2001) Calibration of the DRASTIC ground water vulnerability mapping method. Ground Water 39(4):625–630
Sacha L, Fleming D, Wysocki H (1987) Survey of pesticides in selected areas having vulnerable ground waters in Washington State. EPA/910/9–87/169, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X, Seattle, Washington
Sadat-Noori SM, Ebrahimi K, Liaghat AM (2014) Groundwater quality assessment using the water quality index and GIS in Saveh-Nobaran aquifer, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 71:3827–3843
Saeedi M, Abessi O, Sharifi F, Meraji H (2010) Development of groundwater quality index. Environ Monit Assess 163:327–335
Salas JD, Delleur JW, Yevjevich V, Lane WL (1980) Applied modeling of hydrologic time series. Water Resources Publications, Littleton
Saleh A, Al-Ruwaih F, Shehata M (1999) Hydrogeochemical processes operating within the main aquifers of Kuwait. J Arid Environ 42:195–209
Salman AS, Zaidi FK, Hussein MT (2015) Evaluation of groundwater quality in northern Saudi Arabia using multivariate analysis and stochastic statistics. Environ Earth Sci 74(12):7769–7782
Sânchez-Martos F, Jiménez-Espinosa R, Pulido-Bosch A (2001) Mapping groundwater quality variables using PCA and geostatistics: a case study of Bajo Andarax, southeastern Spain. Hydrol Sci J 46(2):227–242
Sara MN, Gibbons R (1991) Organization and analysis of water quality data. In: Nielsen DM (ed) Practical handbook of ground-water monitoring. Lewis Publishers, Michigan, pp 541–588
Scanlon BR, Reedy RC, Bronson KF (2008) Impacts of landuse change on nitrogen cycling archived in semiarid unsaturated zone nitrate profiles, Southern High Plains, Texas. Environ Sci Technol 42(20):7566–7572
Schaefer JA, Mayor SJ (2007) Geostatistics reveal the scale of habitat selection. Ecol Model 209(2–4):401–406
Schoeller H (1955) Geochimie des eaux souterraines. Rev de l’Inst Francais du Petrole Paris 10(3):181–213
Sener E, Davraz A (2013) Assessment of groundwater vulnerability based on a modified DRASTIC model, GIS and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method: The case of Egirdir Lake basin (Isparta, Turkey). Hydrogeol J 21:701–714
Şener Ş, Şener E, Davraz A (2017) Evaluation of water quality using water quality index (WQI) method and GIS in Aksu River (SW-Turkey). Sci Total Environ 584–585:131–144
Shahin M, Van Oorschot HJL, De Lange SJ (1993) Statistical analysis in water resources engineering. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam
Shirazi SM, Imran HM, Akib S (2012) GIS-based DRASTIC method for groundwater vulnerability assessment: a review. J Risk Res 15(8):991–1011
Siebert S, Burke J, Faures J, Frenken K, Hoogeveen J, Döll P, Portmann T (2010) Groundwater use for irrigation—a global inventory. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 14:1863–1880
Skidmore AK, Bijer W, Schmidt K, Kumar L, K (1997) Use of remote sensing and GIS for sustainable land management. ITC J 3(4):302–315
Smith DG (1990) A better water quality indexing system for rivers and streams. Water Res 24(10):1237–1244
Sneath PHA, Sokal RR (1973) Numerical taxonomy. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco
Snodgrass MF, Kitanidis PK (1997) A geostatistical approach to contaminant source identification. Water Resour Res 33(4):537–546
Soltan ME (1999) Evaluation of groundwater quality in Dakhla Oasis (Egyptian Western Desert). Environ Monit Assess 57:157–168
Sorichetta A, Masetti M, Ballabio C, Sterlacchini S (2012) Aquifer nitrate vulnerability assessment using positive and negative weights of evidence methods, Milan Italy. Comput Geosci 48:199–210
Sprague LA, Lorenz DL (2009) Regional nutrient trends in streams and rivers of the United States, 1993–2003. Environ Sci Technol 43(10):3430–3435
Stafford DB (ed) (1991) Civil engineering applications of remote sensing and geographic information systems. ASCE, New York
Stamatis G, Parpodis K, Filintas A, Zagana E (2011) Groundwater quality, nitrate pollution and irrigation environmental management in the Neogene sediments of an agricultural region in central Thessaly (Greece). Environ Earth Sci 64:1081–1105
Stambuk-Giljanovic N (1999) Water quality evaluation by index in Dalmatia. Water Res 33(16):3423–3440
Steenhuis TS, Pacenka S, Porter KS (1987) MOUSE: a management model for evaluation ground water contamination from diffuse surface sources aided by computer graphics. Appl Agric Res 2:277–289
Steinhorst RK, Williams RE (1985) Discrimination of groundwater sources using cluster analysis, MANOVA, canonical analysis and discriminant analysis. Water Resour Res 21(8):1149–1156
Steube C, Richter S, Griebler C (2009) First attempts towards an integrative concept for the ecological assessment of groundwater ecosystems. Hydrogeol J 17(1):23–35
Stiff HA Jr. (1951) The interpretation of chemical water analysis by means of patterns. J Pet Technol 3(10):15–17
Stigter TY, Ribeiro L, Carvalho Dill AMM (2006) Application of a groundwater quality index as an assessment and communication tool in agroenvironmental policies: two Portuguese case studies. J Hydrol 327:578–591
Stoner JD (1978) Water-Quality Indices for Specific Water Uses. Geological Survey Circular 770, Washington, DC
Subbarao C, Subbarao NV, Chandu SN (1996) Characterization of groundwater contamination using factor analysis. Environ Geol 28(4):175–180
Suk H, Lee KK (1999) Characterization of a ground water hydrochemical system through multivariate analysis: clustering into ground water zones. Ground Water 37(3):358–366
Sullivan T, Gao Y (2017) Development of a new P3 (Probability, Protection, and Precipitation) method for vulnerability, hazard, and risk intensity index assessments in karst watersheds. J Hydrol 549:428–451
Taylor CH, Loftis JC (1989) Testing for trend in lake and ground water quality time series. J Am Water Resour Assoc 25(4):715–726
Tennant CB, White ML (1959) Study of the distribution of some geochemical data. Econ Geol 54:1281–1290
Teso RR, Younglove T, Peterson MR, Sheeks DL, Gallavan RE (1988) Soil taxonomy and surveys: classification of areal sensitivity to pesticide contamination of ground water. J Soil Water Conserv 43(4):348–352
Thirumalaivasan D, Karmegam M, Venugopal K (2003) AHP-DRASTIC: software for specific aquifer vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC model and GIS. Environ Model Softw 18(7):645–656
Thurstone LL (1931) Multiple factor analysis. Psychol Rev 38:406–427
Thyne G, Güler C, Poeter E (2004) Sequential analysis of hydrochemical data for watershed characterization. Ground Water 42(5):711–723
Tryon RC (1939) Cluster analysis. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor
United Nations Environment Programme (2007) Global drinking water quality index development and sensitivity analysis report. United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Monitoring System/Water Programme
USEPA (1996) Guidance for data quality assessment: practical methods for data analysis. Quality Assurance Division, EPA QA/G-9, version QA96, United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC
USEPA (1998) Guidance for Data quality assessment: practical methods for data analysis. Quality Assurance Division, EPA QA/G-9, version QA97, United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC
USSL (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils. United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL). In: Richards LA (ed) Hand Book 60. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Washington DC, USA, p 159
Usunoff EJ, Guzman-Guzman A (1989) Multivariate analysis in hydrochemistry: an example of the use of factor and correspondence analysis. Ground Water 27(1):27–34
Vadiati M, Asghari-Moghaddam A, Nakhaei M, Adamowski J, Akbarzadeh AH (2016) A fuzzy-logic based decision-making approach for identification of groundwater quality based on groundwater quality indices. J Environ Manag 184:255–270
Van Stempvoort D, Evert L, Wassenaar L (1992) Aquifer Vulnerability Index: a GIS compatible method for groundwater vulnerability mapping. Can Water Resour J 18:25–37
Vasanthavigar M, Srinivasamoorthy K, Vijayaragavan K, Rajiv Ganthi R, Chidambaram S, Anandhan P, Manivannan R, Vasudevan S (2010) Application of water quality index for groundwater quality assessment: Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Tamilnadu, India. Environ Monit Assess 171(1–4):595–609
Visser A, Dubus I, Broers HP, Brouyère S, Korcz M, Orban P, Goderniaux P, Batlle-Aguilar J, Surdyk N, Amraoui N, Job H, Pinault JL, Bierkens M (2009) Comparison of methods for the detection and extrapolation of trends in groundwater quality. J Environ Monit 11:2030–2043
von der Heide C, Böttcher J, Deurer M, Weymann D, Well R, Duijnisveld WHM (2008) Spatial variability of N2O concentrations and of denitrification-related factors in the surficial groundwater of a catchment in Northern Germany. J Hydrol 360:230–241
Voudouris K, Polemio M, Kazakis N, Sifaleras A (2010) An agricultural decision support system for optimal land use regarding groundwater vulnerability. Int J Inf Syst Soc Change 1(4):66–79
Vrba J, Zaporozec A (1994) Guidebook on mapping groundwater vulnerability. International contributions to hydrogeology, vol 16. International Association of Hydrogeologists, Hannover
Wachniew P, Zurek AJ, Stumpp C, Gemitzi A, Gargini A, Filippini M, Rozanski K, Meeks J, Kværner J, Witczak S (2016) Toward operational methods for the assessment of intrinsic groundwater vulnerability: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 46(9):827–884
Wagenet RJ, Hutson JL (1987) LEACHM: a finite-difference model for simulating water, salt, and pesticide movement in the Plant root zone, continuum 2. New York State Resources Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca
WHO (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. World Health Organization, Geneva (license: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO)
Wilcox LV (1955) Classification and use of irrigation water. Circular 696. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Washington, DC
Williams RE (1982) Statistical identification of hydraulic connections between the surface of a mountain and internal mineralized sources. Ground Water 20(4):466–478
World Bank (2010) Deep wells and prudence: towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. World Bank Report No. 51676, Washington, DC
Wunderlin DA, del Pilar DM, Valeria AM, Fabiana PS, Cecilia HA, de los Angeles BM (2001) Pattern recognition techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality. A case study: Suquía River Basin (Córdoba-Argentina). Water Res 35(12):2881–2894
Wurl J, Mendez-Rodriguez L, Acosta-Vargas B (2014) Arsenic content in groundwater from the southern part of the San Antonio-El Triunfo mining district, Baja California Sur, Mexico. J Hydrol 518:447–459
Yevjevich VM (1972) Stochastic processes in hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Fort Collins
Yue S, Pilon P, Phinney B, Cavadias G (2002) The influence of autocorrelation on the ability to detect trend in hydrological series. Hydrol Process 16:1807–1829
Zakhem BA, Hafez R (2015) Heavy metal pollution index for groundwater quality assessment in Damascus Oasis, Syria. Environ Earth Sci 73(10):6591–6600
Zaporozec A (1972) Graphical interpretation of water-quality data. Ground Water 10(2):32–43
Zwahlen F (ed) (2004) Vulnerability and risk mapping for the protection of carbonate (Karst) aquifers, final report (COST Action 620). European Commission, Directorate-General XII science, research and development, Report EUR 20912, Brussels, p 297
Metadata
Title
A review of GIS-integrated statistical techniques for groundwater quality evaluation and protection
Authors
Deepesh Machiwal
Vincent Cloutier
Cüneyt Güler
Nerantzis Kazakis
Publication date
01-10-2018
Publisher
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in
Environmental Earth Sciences / Issue 19/2018
Print ISSN: 1866-6280
Electronic ISSN: 1866-6299
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7872-x

Other articles of this Issue 19/2018

Environmental Earth Sciences 19/2018 Go to the issue

Original Article

Spatiotemporal monitoring of surface motions using DInSAR techniques integrated with geological information: a case study of an iron mine in the Amazon region using TerraSAR-X and RADARSAT-2 data

Original Article

Precipitation pattern modeling using cross-station perception: regional investigation

Original Article

Heavy metal concentrations in sediments from Xingyun lake, southwestern China: implications for environmental changes and human activities

Original Article

Modeling colloid-associated atrazine transport in sand column based on managed aquifer recharge

Original Article

An elastoplastic model for gas flow characteristics around drainage borehole considering post-peak failure and elastic compaction

Original Article

Estimation of longshore sediment transport direction from varying coastal morphodynamics due to shore structures