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2023 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

An Introduction to Ethiopian Legal Culture

Authors : Eyob Awash Gebremariam, Mulu Beyene Kidanemariam

Published in: Handbook on Legal Cultures

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Ethiopia is a diverse country, with a predominantly agrarian and religious population. It enjoys a long but equally contested history. Its traditional legal system revolved around issues of ascension to power, land use, and rituals of a good life. Modern Ethiopia, where a centralized administration was attained, only began at the turn of the twentieth century, and the codification of its laws during the 1950s and 1960s has been a major milestone in this period. In recognition of its diversity and hoping to stem recurring political conflicts in the country, federalism was introduced as a state structure in 1991. Accordingly, state power is divided between the federal and regional governments. The federal government is parliamentarian and has a bicameral parliament, with the upper house uniquely tasked with settling constitutional disputes. Religious and traditional dispute-resolution mechanisms are also given constitutional recognition. While the legal system principally features the civil law legal tradition, it has recently introduced a partial precedent system. Weak democratic institutions, undeveloped legal education, and a nascent legal profession render discussions on distinct legal methods in Ethiopia difficult. Despite these limitations and by focusing on federal laws and institutions, this chapter presents the salient features of the Ethiopian legal culture, following the model used in this book.

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The last population census was conducted in 2007. Mainly due to instability, the next round has been postponed since 2017. See FDRE Constitution, Art. 103 (5). Current estimations based on projections are found in Ethiopian Statistical Agency (2013) Population Projection, available at https://www.statsethiopia.gov.et.

All web-based sources used in this chapter were last available on 01 November 2022.

Abera (2000), p. 2.

Ficquet (2015), p. 94.

Prunier and Ficquet (2015), p. 1.

Clapham (2015), p. 186.

For more on this, see Bonacci and Meckelburg (2017).

Eritrea was part of the loose Ethiopian empire until 1890, when Italy took it under its colonial control. Following Italy’s defeat during World War II, Eritrea was placed under British administrative rule. In 1952, it was incorporated back into Ethiopia but under a special confederal arrangement. The arrangement was then controversially nullified, and Eritrean became a mere province of Ethiopia in 1962. This triggered a civil war that ended in 1991, with Eritrea emerging as an independent country. For details on the complicated history of the two, see Tekeste and Tronvoll (2000).

Bahru (2001), p. 1. Note that among historians and map makers, Ethiopia is also referred to as Abyssinia, even if its political use has been controversial. See Markakis (2011), p. 23; and also Ficquet and Dereje (2015), p. 17.

Henze Paul (2000), p. 22.

Fasil (1997), p. 5.

Teshale (1995), p. xi.

Menelik was a regional lord in Shewa, present-day north of Addis Ababa, and was crowned as King of Ethiopia from 1889 to 1910. His army expanded the contours of Ethiopia to the south by subjugating neighboring areas through military conquest. For a brief historical account of the expansion, see Henze Paul (2000), p. 144 ff.

Teshale (1995), p. xi.

Marcus (2002), p. 76.

This historical fault line also arguably explains the current war in Ethiopia.

Henze Paul (2000), p. 144 ff.

Markakis (2011), p. 109.

Teshale (1995), p. xxii.

Abebe (2019), p. 318.

Abera (2000), p. 222.

Ibid.

Ibid, p. 219.

Ibid.

Abera (2000), p. 84.

Fasil (1997), p. 68.

See Bahru (2001), p. 179 ff.

Before monetary payment was introduced, the few royal agents that were dispatched to the peripheries were given land as compensation for their service. See Bahru (2001), p. 191.

Abera (2000), p. 18.

Vibhute (2015), p. 8.

Abera (2000), p. 198.

Ibid.

Ibid, p. 188 ff. See also David (1963).

Tsehai (2012), p. 272.

Geez is a language of the Axumite Civilization. Its use, however, has been limited to church services since the decline of the Civilization towards the 9th century. As the political center moved southwards from Tigray, Amharic became dominant. Tigrigna and Amharic languages are direct descendants of the Geez language and use the same script. For more, see Henze Paul (2000), p. 37 ff.

Tsegaye (2013), p. 347.

Abera (2000), p. 41.

On various customary rules on dispute settlement, see Pankhurst and Getachew (2008).

David (1963), p. 193.

Ibid.

David (1967), p. 344.

For details on this position, see Krzeczunowicz (1965).

See David (1967).

The first was promulgated in 1931 to modernize and centralize the state; the second came in 1955 as an amendment to the first, following the incorporation of Eritrea with Ethiopia; the third constitution was enacted in 1987 by a communist, military regime to formalize its rule. The regime was toppled in 1991, and following a transitional arrangement that stayed for 4 years, the existing Constitution was introduced in 1995.

See Fasil (1997) for a brief history of the constitutions.

The salient features of the short-lived constitution can be found in Fisseha-Tsion (1988).

See Fasil (1997) on the making of the FDRE Constitution.

Ibid, p. 49. Unfortunately, both features are seriously compromised in practice due to limited political space.

For details on the subject, see Ahmednasir (1998).

See Fasil (1997) for a better understanding of the thinking behind the Constitution and how that was translated into the provisions of the same.

Under the Constitution, the constituting entities are referred to as states. However, in the literature, expressions such as regional states or regions are often used. In this chapter, we also use these expressions alternatively.

While the nine states were formed under the constitution (Art. 47), two were recently added, excercising the constitutional right to self determination. FDRE Constitution (1995), Art. 1, 46–52, 94–100 are the most relevant provisions highlighting the federal nature of the Ethiopian state. See also Tronvoll (2020).

FDRE Constitution, Art. 45 ff.

Ibid, Art. 62.

The powers of the President are regulated under Art. 77 of the FDRE Constitution.

FDRE Constitution, Art. 78(2).

Ibid, Art. 78(3).

Ibid, Art. 78(1) and Art. 79(2).

Ibid, Art. 79(4).

See FDRE Constitution, Art. 79 and 81.

Ibid, Art. 81.

Ibid, Art. 81 (2) and Art. 81(3) respectively.

Ibid, Art. 81 (2) and Art. 81(4–5) respectively.

See Ibid, Art. 79(4).

For instance, Aron (2020); Assefa (2014).

See Aron (2020) for a recent review.

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 3.

FDRE Constitution, Art. 9(2) and 13(1).

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 4 and 5.

Ibid, Art. 4.

Ibid, Art. 4(6).

Ibid, Art. 5(1(a).

Ibid, Art. 5(1(e –q)).

Ibid, Art. 2(4).

Nigussie (2019), p. 381.

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 10.

Ibid.

FDRE Constitution, Art. 80(2).

Ibid, Art. 80(3(a)).

Ibid, Art. 80 (3 and 4).

Ibid, Art. 80 (5 and 6).

See, for instance, Mehari (2015).

For an introduction to the practice, see Zenebe et al. (2015).

Assefa (2007), p. 10.

See Art. 8 of the FDRE Constitution.

Assefa (2007), p. 10.

Assefa (2005), p. 18.

FDRE Constitution, Art. 61 (2&3).

FDRE Constitution, Art. 62.

Ibid, Art. 83.

Anchinesh (2019), p. 421.

FDRE Constitution Art. 84 and Council of Constitutional Inquiry Proclamation No. 798/2013 Art. 15.

Assefa (2007), p. 10.

Assefa (2007), p. 11.

Consolidation of the House of the Federation and Definition of its Powers and Responsibilities Proclamation No. 251/2001, Art. 7.

Takele (2011), p. 104.

FDRE Constitution, Art. 84.

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 4.

Getachew (2011), p. 156.

See Takele (2011) for an extended treatment of the referral system.

100

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 3(1)a; 6(1) and 11(3).

101

Simeneh (2021), p. 414.

102

FDRE Constitution, Art. 34(5).

103

Ibid.

104

See Alemayehu (2007).

105

Endalew (2014), p. 141.

106

Ibid, p. 143.

107

Tsehai (2012), p. 279.

108

Ibid, p. 288.

109

See Art. 5(4) of Federal Courts of Sharia Consolidation, Proclamation No. 188/1999.

110

See Ibid, Art. 4(1).

111

Ibid, Art. 17.

112

Amaha (2014), p. 187.

113

Ibid, p. 235.

114

Menberetshai (2010), p. 235.

115

Ibid, p. 236.

116

See Civil Code of Ethiopia, Art. 3307, 3318, 3325–3345.

117

See Arbitration and Conciliation Working Procedure Proclamation No. 1237/2021.

118

See Ayana (2019) for an overview.

119

The Social Security Authority Establishment Proclamation No. 38/1996.

120

See Federal Civil Service Proclamation No. 1064/2017, Art. 79.

121

See Labour Proclamation No. 1156/2019, Art. 190.

122

See Federal Tax Administration Proclamation No. 983/2016, Art. 86.

123

Ayana (2019), p. 60.

124

FDRE Constitution, Art. 37(1).

125

Ibid, Art. 78(4).

126

Ayana (2019), p. 62.

127

Getachew (2017), p. 82.

128

FDRE Constitution, Art. 8 (1–2).

129

Ibid, Art. 9(1). Also relevant are Arts. 9(2) and 13(1).

130

See Ibid, Art. 95–100.

131

See Ibid, Art. 85–90.

132

See Ibid, Art. 45 and 50(3).

133

Abera (2000), p. 18.

134

FDRE Constitution, Art. 51 and 55.

135

A look at the website of the federal parliament shows that only a few drafts and preparatory works are available. See House of Peoples’ Representative, ‘Draft Laws’, available at https://www.hopr.gov.et/web/guest/participate.

136

Proclamation No.3, Art. 2(4).

137

Language choices during the modernization of Ethiopian laws are discussed by Fassil and Fisher (1968).

138

The House of Peoples’ Representatives of the Democratic Federal Republic of Ethiopia, Rules of Procedures and Members’ Code of Conduct Regulation, Regulation No. 3/1998, Art. 26.

139

This observation is made based on the personal experiences of the authors.

140

FDRE Constitution, Art. 52 (2).

141

Ibid, Art. 52(1).

142

Tsegaye (2009), p. 46.

143

Ibid, Art. 50.

144

Tsegaye (2009), p. 47.

145

Ibid, Art. 51(5).

146

Ibid, Art. 52(2(d)).

147

Lavers (2018) provides a review of the issues.

148

FDRE Constitution, Art. 52(2(c).

149

Ibid, Art. 52 (2(c)).

150

Assefa and Zemelak (2017), p. 250.

151

Ibid, p. 247.

152

Ibid, p. 250 referring to Assefa and Habib (2010), p. 144.

153

Ibid.

154

Ibid, citing Assefa (2005), p. 395.

155

See Gofie (2015).

156

See, for instance, Getachew et al. (2020), p. 4.

157

Addis Fortune (17 April 2020) Timely Reminder: Regional States are Sovereign, So Says the Constitution, Editorial, available at https://addisfortune.news/timely-reminder-regional-states-are-sovereign-so-says-the-constitution/.

158

FDRE Constitution, Art. 50(8).

159

For a brief presentation of the content and codification process of the codes see Abera, p. 198 ff.

160

The Codes can be accessed at https://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/volume-3/6641-law-codes.

161

Ibid.

162

In today’s Ethiopia, while Amharic is the working language of the federal government, the regional states have their own working languages. See FDRE Constitution, Art. 5.

163

The new Commercial Code, aimed at accommodating expanded commercial activities, was promulged in 2021 through Proclamation No. 1243/2021 and the new criminal law was promulgated in 2005 as FDRE Criminal Code Proclamation No. 414/2005.

164

David (1963), p. 196.

165

See, for instance, David (1967). More about the is discussed in Sect. 1.2 above.

166

Ibid, p. 346.

167

Ibid, p. 347.

168

See Gizaw (2007) for a detailed discussion on the changes that the Family Code has brought.

169

See Alemayehu (2007).

170

For instance, see Abera (2000), p. 12 for this position.

171

Ethiopian Civil Code (1960), Art. 74.

172

Ibid, Art. 3361.

173

Revised Federal Family Code of Ethiopia (2000), Art. 321(1).

174

Registration of Vital Events and National Identity Card Proclamation No. 760/2012. Some regions have also enacted similar laws, which in effect limit the federal law to apply only in the federal jurisdiction of Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.

175

Center for Excellence for CRVS, available at https://crvssystems.ca/country-profile/ethiopia.

176

See Hiil (2020), p. 79.

177

David (1963), p. 202.

178

FDRE Constitution, Art. 77 (13). Emphasis is added.

179

See Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs, Proclamation No. 1263/2021, Art. 49.

180

Liku Worku (2015) express repeal of delegated legislation under Ethiopia, available at https://www.abyssinialaw.com/blog-posts/item/1445-express-repeal-of-delegated-legislation-under-ethiopia.

181

For an overview of the relationship, see Assefa (2015).

182

See Degol and Kedir (2014), p. 21 ff for the arguments regarding the legal nature of directives in Ethiopia.

183

Federal Courts Proclamation No. 1234/2021, Art. 10.

184

Hussein (2014), p. 224.

185

The list can be accessed here: https://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/separated-cassation-decisions/6408-volume-4.

186

Art. 11(2) of Proclamation No. 251/2001 stipulates that ‘The House shall publicize the decision in a special publication to be issued for this purpose.’

187

See generally Mulu (2020) and Assefa and Habib (2010).

188

Mulu (2020).

189

The relevant law is FDRE, Consolidation of the House of the Federation and Definition of its Powers and Responsibilities Proclamation, Proclamation No. 251/2001.

190

Ibid, Art.7.

191

See Mulu (2020), p. 9 for sample cases.

192

Ibid. Some of the decided cases can be accessible at https://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/case-law/constitutional-decisions (in Amharic).

193

David (1967), p. 342.

194

Melaku (1993), p. 204.

195

Abera (2000), p. 35.

196

Abera (2000), p. 32.

197

FDRE Constitution, preamble.

198

Federal Negarit Gazeta Establishment Proclamation No. 3/1995, Art. 3.

199

FDRE, A Proclamation to Consolidate the House of the Federation of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and to Define its Powers and Responsibilities, Proclamation No. 251/2001, Art. 2(2).

200

FDRE Constitution, Art. 9(1).

201

See, for instance, Getachew (2017), Getachew (2001); Haile (2005); and Takele (2009).

202

Krzeczunowicz (1964), p. 317.

203

Civil Code, Art. 1933–1937 are the most relevant provisions.

204

Ibid, pp. 317–318.

205

Civil Code, Art. 1732.

206

David (1967), p. 343.

207

See Krzeczunowicz (1969), p. 146.

208

Ibid, p. 145.

209

Ibid, p. 146–147.

210

For instance, see Ibid, Art. 2099 –2101; and 2172.

211

See for instance Civil Procedure Code, Art. 343(1).

212

FDRE Constitution, Art. 13(2).

213

Simeneh (2021), p. 415.

214

Geraghty and Quansah (2008), p. 50.

215

Fisher (2014).

216

Geraghty and Quansah (2008), p. 66.

217

Getachew (2022), p. 172.

218

See Abdi (2011), p. 54 and Geraghty and Quansah (2008), p. 73.

219

See Ibid, Abdi (2011).

220

Getachew (2022), p. 172.

221

Tsegaye (2010), p. 1.

222

For debates on the need for administrating an exit exam for law students, see Tsegaye (2010).

223

See Law Ethiopia, Teaching Materials, available at: https://www.lawethiopia.com/index.php/resouces/teaching-materials.

224

See, for instance, Federal Courts Advocates’ Licensing and Registration Proclamation No. 199/2000, Art. 5(3) and the current Federal Courts Proclamation No 1234/2021, Art. 4.

225

Hiil (2020), p. 177.

226

Berhanu (2018), p. 121.

227

Ibid, p. 114.

228

Geraghty and Quansah (2008), p. 71.

229

Some of the known law journals can be found in Abraham Yohannes (2017) Links to Law Journals in Ethiopia, available at https://chilot.me/2017/07/01/links-to-law-journals-in-ethiopia/.

Abdi (2011), p. 50.

Ibid, p. 51.

Ibid, p. 91.

Tewodros (2021), p. 65.

234

Federal Advocacy Service Licensing and Administration Proclamation No 1249/2021, Art. 4(1).

Ibid, Art. 5.

Ibid, Art. 6.

Ibid, Art. 8.

Hiil (2020), p. 79.

See Ethiopian Lawyers’ Association, Organization’s Profile, available at https://www.ethiopian-bar.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7&Itemid=159.

240

See, for instance, Fisher (2014), particularly p. 200 ff.

241

CIA, World Fact Book, Ethiopia, available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia.

242

Details of UN treaties to which Ethiopia is a party can be accessed at https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=59&Lang=EN. For African instruments, see here and here.

243

See the African Union, Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Decisions on Communications │ Ethiopia, available at https://www.achpr.org/states/detail?id=19.

244

See Simeneh (2021).

245

See FDRE Constitution, Art. 55 (12).

246

See Liku Worku (2015). Legislative proposals and the application of human rights treaties in Ethiopia is available at https://www.abyssinialaw.com/blog-posts/item/1468-legislative-proposals-and-application-of-human-right-treaties-in-ethiopia.

247

See Ibrahim (2000).

248

The Federal Negarit Gazeta is the government gazette of Ethiopia, defined in Art. 71.2 of the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia and established on 22 August 1995 by the Federal Negarit Gazeta Establishment Proclamation No. 3/1995.

249

See, for instance, Takele (2009), p. 148.

250

FDRE Constitution, Art. 71(2).

251

Ibrahim (2000), p. 124.

252

FDRE Constitution, Art. 9(4).

253

Ibid.

254

Ibid, Art. 13(2).

255

Ibrahim (2000), p. 125.

256

Getachew (2017), p. 23.

257

Geraghty (2021), p. 9.

258

In the Ethiopian patronymic naming system, the concept of a last name or family name is unknown. At times, grand father’s name is used as last name in publications based in western countries. However, as people are known with their given names, it is almost impossible for readers to identify the quoted author. It is, therefore, commonly recommended and often followed that in the reference list, Ethiopian authors should be sorted by their given name followed by their father’s name. We have used this recommendation in this bibliography. See Meyer and Treis (2022).

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Title: An Introduction to Ethiopian Legal Culture
Authors: Eyob Awash Gebremariam
Mulu Beyene Kidanemariam
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Handbook on Legal Cultures
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-27744-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-031-27745-0

Copyright Year: 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27745-0_12

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