Skip to main content
Top
Published in: The Computer Games Journal 1-2/2015

01-06-2015

Cognitive Load in Real-Time Strategy Gaming: Human Opponent Versus AI Opponent

Authors: Yang Chen, Jian Ou, David M. Whittinghill

Published in: The Computer Games Journal | Issue 1-2/2015

Log in

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

This paper examines the cognitive load in real-time strategy gaming subjects along with physiological and subjective measurements. The subjects were college students from a northeastern university in China. This paper is a study into players’ cognitive load measurement when playing against human opponents and game artificial intelligences (game AIs). Using eye trackers, action per minute recorders and questionnaires, we collected qualitative data from participants about their cognitive load through playing against human opponents and game AI opponents. The results indicate that players have more cognitive load when playing against human opponents than against game AI opponents. Secondly, as the players’ gaming skill increased, their cognitive load did not differ substantially when they switched from playing against human players to playing against game AI opponents. A deeper understanding of players’ cognitive load can enable a developer to design a more appropriate game experience.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe




 

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Literature
go back to reference Alexander, J. T., Sear, J., & Oikonomou, A. (2013). An investigation of the effects of game difficulty on player enjoyment. Entertainment Computing, 4(1), 53–62.CrossRef Alexander, J. T., Sear, J., & Oikonomou, A. (2013). An investigation of the effects of game difficulty on player enjoyment. Entertainment Computing, 4(1), 53–62.CrossRef
go back to reference Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRef Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRef
go back to reference Anderson, E. W., Potter, K. C., Matzen, L. E., Shepherd, J. F., Preston, G. A., & Silva, C. T. (2011). A user study of visualization effectiveness using EEG and cognitive load. Computer Graphics Forum, 30(3), 791–800.CrossRef Anderson, E. W., Potter, K. C., Matzen, L. E., Shepherd, J. F., Preston, G. A., & Silva, C. T. (2011). A user study of visualization effectiveness using EEG and cognitive load. Computer Graphics Forum, 30(3), 791–800.CrossRef
go back to reference Ang, C. S., Zaphiris, P., & Mahmood, S. (2007). A model of cognitive loads in massively multiplayer online role playing games. Interacting with Computers, 19(2), 167–179.CrossRef Ang, C. S., Zaphiris, P., & Mahmood, S. (2007). A model of cognitive loads in massively multiplayer online role playing games. Interacting with Computers, 19(2), 167–179.CrossRef
go back to reference Aponte, M. V., Levieux, G., & Natkin, S. (2011). Measuring the level of difficulty in single player video games. Entertainment Computing, 2(4), 205–213.CrossRef Aponte, M. V., Levieux, G., & Natkin, S. (2011). Measuring the level of difficulty in single player video games. Entertainment Computing, 2(4), 205–213.CrossRef
go back to reference Bailey, B. P., & Iqbal, S. T. (2008). Understanding changes in mental workload during execution of goal-directed tasks and its application for interruption management. ACM Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction, 14(4), 21.CrossRef Bailey, B. P., & Iqbal, S. T. (2008). Understanding changes in mental workload during execution of goal-directed tasks and its application for interruption management. ACM Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction, 14(4), 21.CrossRef
go back to reference Chalmers, P. A. (2003). The role of cognitive theory in human–computer interface. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(5), 593–607.CrossRef Chalmers, P. A. (2003). The role of cognitive theory in human–computer interface. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(5), 593–607.CrossRef
go back to reference Chang, C. C. (2013). Examining users’ intention to continue using social network games: A flow experience perspective. Telematics and Informatics, 30, 311–321.CrossRef Chang, C. C. (2013). Examining users’ intention to continue using social network games: A flow experience perspective. Telematics and Informatics, 30, 311–321.CrossRef
go back to reference Chen, S., Epps, J., Ruiz, N., & Chen, F. (2011). Eye activity as a measure of human mental effort in HCI. In Proceedings of the 16th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces (pp. 315–318). Chen, S., Epps, J., Ruiz, N., & Chen, F. (2011). Eye activity as a measure of human mental effort in HCI. In Proceedings of the 16th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces (pp. 315–318).
go back to reference Chou, C., & Tsai, M. J. (2007). Gender differences in Taiwan high school students’ computer game playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 812–824.CrossRef Chou, C., & Tsai, M. J. (2007). Gender differences in Taiwan high school students’ computer game playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 812–824.CrossRef
go back to reference Colwell, J. (2007). Needs met through computer game play among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 2072–2082.CrossRef Colwell, J. (2007). Needs met through computer game play among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 2072–2082.CrossRef
go back to reference Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
go back to reference Dong, M., & Ma, R. (1998). Application of multistage evaluation scale in subjective assessment of mental workload. Hang tian, 11(3), 202–204. Dong, M., & Ma, R. (1998). Application of multistage evaluation scale in subjective assessment of mental workload. Hang tian, 11(3), 202–204.
go back to reference Engl, S., & Nacke, L. E. (2013). Contextual influences on mobile player experience—A game user experience model. Entertainment Computing, 4(1), 83–91.CrossRef Engl, S., & Nacke, L. E. (2013). Contextual influences on mobile player experience—A game user experience model. Entertainment Computing, 4(1), 83–91.CrossRef
go back to reference Feinberg, S., & Murphy, M. (2000). Applying cognitive load theory to the design of web-based instruction. In IEEE professional communication society international professional communication conference (pp. 353–360). Feinberg, S., & Murphy, M. (2000). Applying cognitive load theory to the design of web-based instruction. In IEEE professional communication society international professional communication conference (pp. 353–360).
go back to reference Frostling-Henningsson, M. (2009). First-person shooter games as a way of connecting to people: ‘Brothers in blood’. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 12(5), 557–562.CrossRef Frostling-Henningsson, M. (2009). First-person shooter games as a way of connecting to people: ‘Brothers in blood’. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 12(5), 557–562.CrossRef
go back to reference Fujita, H., & Wu, I. (2012). A special issue on artificial intelligence in computer games: AICG. Knowledge-Based Systems, 34, 1–2.CrossRef Fujita, H., & Wu, I. (2012). A special issue on artificial intelligence in computer games: AICG. Knowledge-Based Systems, 34, 1–2.CrossRef
go back to reference Gevins, A., Smith, M. E., Leong, H., McEvoy, L., Whitfield, S., Du, R., & Rush, G. (1998). Monitoring working memory load during computer-based tasks with EEG pattern recognition methods. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 40(1), 79–91.CrossRef Gevins, A., Smith, M. E., Leong, H., McEvoy, L., Whitfield, S., Du, R., & Rush, G. (1998). Monitoring working memory load during computer-based tasks with EEG pattern recognition methods. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 40(1), 79–91.CrossRef
go back to reference Hagelback, J., & Johansson, S. J. (2009). Measuring player experience on runtime dynamic difficulty scaling in an RTS game. In IEEE symposium on computational intelligence and games (pp. 46–52). Hagelback, J., & Johansson, S. J. (2009). Measuring player experience on runtime dynamic difficulty scaling in an RTS game. In IEEE symposium on computational intelligence and games (pp. 46–52).
go back to reference Hou, J., Nam, Y., Peng, W., & Lee, K. M. (2012). Effects of screen size, viewing angle, and players’ immersion tendencies on game experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(2), 617–623.CrossRef Hou, J., Nam, Y., Peng, W., & Lee, K. M. (2012). Effects of screen size, viewing angle, and players’ immersion tendencies on game experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(2), 617–623.CrossRef
go back to reference Jansz, J., Avis, C., & Vosmeer, M. (2010). Playing The Sims2: An exploration of gender differences in players’ motivations and patterns of play. New Media & Society, 12(2), 235–251.CrossRef Jansz, J., Avis, C., & Vosmeer, M. (2010). Playing The Sims2: An exploration of gender differences in players’ motivations and patterns of play. New Media & Society, 12(2), 235–251.CrossRef
go back to reference Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., & Orthmann, J. (2009). Exploring the enjoyment of playing browser games. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 12(2), 231–234.CrossRef Klimmt, C., Schmid, H., & Orthmann, J. (2009). Exploring the enjoyment of playing browser games. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 12(2), 231–234.CrossRef
go back to reference Lavie, N. (2005). Distracted and confused? Selective attention under load. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 75–82.CrossRef Lavie, N. (2005). Distracted and confused? Selective attention under load. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 75–82.CrossRef
go back to reference Lin, Y. L., & Lin, H. W. (2011). A study on the goal value for massively multiplayer online role-playing games players. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 2153–2160.CrossRef Lin, Y. L., & Lin, H. W. (2011). A study on the goal value for massively multiplayer online role-playing games players. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 2153–2160.CrossRef
go back to reference Llargues Asensio, J. M., Peralta, J., Arrabales, R., Bedia, M. G., Cortez, P., & Peña, A. L. (2014). Artificial Intelligence approaches for the generation and assessment of believable human-like behaviour in virtual characters. Expert Systems with Applications, 41, 7281–7290.CrossRef Llargues Asensio, J. M., Peralta, J., Arrabales, R., Bedia, M. G., Cortez, P., & Peña, A. L. (2014). Artificial Intelligence approaches for the generation and assessment of believable human-like behaviour in virtual characters. Expert Systems with Applications, 41, 7281–7290.CrossRef
go back to reference Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. L. (2004). Sex differences in video game play: A communication-based explanation. Communication Research, 31(5), 499–523.CrossRef Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. L. (2004). Sex differences in video game play: A communication-based explanation. Communication Research, 31(5), 499–523.CrossRef
go back to reference Mandryk, R. L., Inkpen, K. M., & Calvert, T. W. (2006). Using psychophysiological techniques to measure user experience with entertainment technologies. Behaviour & Information Technology, 25(2), 141–158.CrossRef Mandryk, R. L., Inkpen, K. M., & Calvert, T. W. (2006). Using psychophysiological techniques to measure user experience with entertainment technologies. Behaviour & Information Technology, 25(2), 141–158.CrossRef
go back to reference McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how they can change the world. Harmondsworth: Penguin. McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how they can change the world. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
go back to reference O’Donnell, R. D., & Eggmeier, F. T. (1986). Workload assessment methodology. In J. P. Thomas & L. Kaufman (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance (Vol. 2). New York: Wiley Interscience. O’Donnell, R. D., & Eggmeier, F. T. (1986). Workload assessment methodology. In J. P. Thomas & L. Kaufman (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance (Vol. 2). New York: Wiley Interscience.
go back to reference Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32(1), 1–8.CrossRef Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32(1), 1–8.CrossRef
go back to reference Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. (2003). Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 63–71.CrossRef Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. (2003). Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 63–71.CrossRef
go back to reference Palinko, O., Kun, A. L., Shyrokov, A., & Heeman, P. (2010). Estimating cognitive load using remote eye tracking in a driving simulator. In Proceedings of the 2010 symposium on eye-tracking research and applications (pp. 141–144). Palinko, O., Kun, A. L., Shyrokov, A., & Heeman, P. (2010). Estimating cognitive load using remote eye tracking in a driving simulator. In Proceedings of the 2010 symposium on eye-tracking research and applications (pp. 141–144).
go back to reference Sax, L. (2009). Boys adrift: The five factors driving the growing epidemic of unmotivated boys and underachieving young men. New York: Basic Books. Sax, L. (2009). Boys adrift: The five factors driving the growing epidemic of unmotivated boys and underachieving young men. New York: Basic Books.
go back to reference Shi, Y., Ruiz, N., Taib R., Choi, E., & Chen, F. (2007). Galvanic skin response (GSR) as an index of cognitive load. In CHI’07 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2651–2656). Shi, Y., Ruiz, N., Taib R., Choi, E., & Chen, F. (2007). Galvanic skin response (GSR) as an index of cognitive load. In CHI’07 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2651–2656).
go back to reference Suznjevic, M., & Matijasevic, M. (2010). Why MMORPG players do what they do: Relating motivations to action categories. International Journal of Advanced Media and Communication, 4(4), 405.CrossRef Suznjevic, M., & Matijasevic, M. (2010). Why MMORPG players do what they do: Relating motivations to action categories. International Journal of Advanced Media and Communication, 4(4), 405.CrossRef
go back to reference Sweetser, P., & Wyeth, P. (2005). Game flow: A model for evaluating player enjoyment in games. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 3(3), 1–24.CrossRef Sweetser, P., & Wyeth, P. (2005). Game flow: A model for evaluating player enjoyment in games. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 3(3), 1–24.CrossRef
go back to reference Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J., & Paas, F. G. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–256.CrossRef Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J., & Paas, F. G. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–256.CrossRef
go back to reference Van Gerven, P. W., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J., & Schmidt, H. G. (2004). Memory load and the cognitive pupillary response in aging. Psychophysiology, 41(2), 167–174.CrossRef Van Gerven, P. W., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J., & Schmidt, H. G. (2004). Memory load and the cognitive pupillary response in aging. Psychophysiology, 41(2), 167–174.CrossRef
Metadata
Title
Cognitive Load in Real-Time Strategy Gaming: Human Opponent Versus AI Opponent
Authors
Yang Chen
Jian Ou
David M. Whittinghill
Publication date
01-06-2015
Publisher
Springer New York
Published in
The Computer Games Journal / Issue 1-2/2015
Electronic ISSN: 2052-773X
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40869-015-0002-z

Other articles of this Issue 1-2/2015

The Computer Games Journal 1-2/2015 Go to the issue

Premium Partner