Environmental and Food Safety and Security for South-East Europe and Ukraine

The recent food and financial crises developed from different underlying causes but intertwined in complex ways through their implications not only for ­financial and economic stability, food security, political security; but also for greater diligence in food defense against deliberate contamination with either economic or terrorist motives. Food security is a hot topic therefore; its disruption via environmental breakdown is an obvious cause for terrorism. The intentional contamination of the food supply poses a real threat to society. It has the potential to disrupt food ­distribution, loss of consumer confidence in government and the food supply, business failures, trade restrictions, and adverse effects on the economy. The global food system is very vulnerable, both structural and social. The bulk production and need for rapid ­production, sourcing and distribution at both national and international level is beyond the limits of routine food safety measures of the industry; especially against high-impact deliberate contamination. Adapting to the additional threats to food security arising from major environmental changes requires an integrated food system approach – strengthening the sector’s infrastructure against deliberate contamination – thereby making the food system less vulnerable to attack(s) or destructive economic outcomes. In this respect vulnerability assessment arouses as an alternative to address food ­supply-chain security by determining the selection of countermeasures to minimize or eliminate vulnerabilities as well as enhancing the capability to identify, respond and recover from intentional contamination and emergency responses.

The diversity of the food in Georgia is directly connected with the ­biodiversity of the country consisting of 14 different soil climatic zones, beginning from subtropical and including steppe and alpine areas. The country is characterized by great amount of plants (the amount of endemic plants exceeds 1,100). Plants grown in the country contain hundreds of structurally different secondary metabolites the majority of which are characterized by definite physiological activity. Bioflavonoids, characterized by extremely high antioxidant activity, seem to be especially interesting. Other secondary metabolites presented in plants in high amount are: phenolics, organic and amino acids, vitamins of different groups, alkaloids, terpens, glycosides, etc. Antioxidant potential of Georgian wines and some Georgian food have been determined. All the food tested showed high antioxidant activity. Georgian wines (both red and white) produced by Kakhetian Technology are characterized by higher content of flavonoids and antioxidant activity than European type wines. The content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity is much higher in red wines than in whiter ones. On the base of Georgian flora ­biologically active biocomposites have been produced. These biocomposites show high antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. They are successfully used in food industry as biologically active food additives including food colorants.

In past 30 years food has become a way of life“. More educated with information’s through media such as internet and TV, consumer’s requirements for more convenient, diverse, less processed and healthier food products grow up exponentially. This kind of demands puts food manufacturers in position to find new innovative methods and technologies, mostly from fundamental science that could be applied as techniques for improved and enhanced production of various foodstuffs. So far, preservation technologies for foods were based on various unit operations such as pasteurization, sterilization, boiling, cooking, drying, extraction, homogenization mainly powered by traditional “fuels” such as steam and hot air that could provide enough heat important for thermal operations which includes already mentioned processes for the purpose of well processed raw material together with guarantee for microbiological safety, nutritional, textural and sensory attributes of final products. Therefore, ECO-FRIENDLY diverse improved technologies usually called “minimal processing technologies” have been developed at the end of twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first century to provide us with eco-friendly, healthier, nutritive enriched, less polluted and less processed foods, together or in combination with serious consideration concerning possible consequences of these technological applications from the processing point of view. However negative consequences of these applied technologies lies mainly in initial investment which could be quite expensive but there is no alternative for cleaner and safer production. Less energy usage, improvements in quality (textural, sensory, microbiological) and yield, heating efficiency, significantly decreased usage of emulsifiers and additives, decreased emission of pollutant gasses are just some of the positive “feedbacks” that gives us cleaner, safer and more acceptable foods. There is even greater need to combine novel technologies with results in way of large scale processing plants to provide an easier access to modern, eco-friendly, environmentally more appropriate and safer food technologies.

The paper analyses in which way EU REACH regulation is capable to contribute to health and environmental safety in Lithuania. In this respect, the importance of improved knowledge on intrinsic properties of chemical substances, implementation of safety measures, and use of less hazardous substitutes are emphasized. The quantitative assessment of the possible benefits of REACH was carried out for a few occupational diseases – asthma, dermatitis, and cancer. REACH has a good opportunity to remind the necessity of prevention and protection measures. The study on the use and substitution of substances of very high concern showed a low awareness of industry on hazardous chemicals prior to REACH adoption.

Paper presents evolution of environmental management in Bulgarian agriculture during post-communist transition and EU integration; assess efficiency and major challenges of existing system of eco-governance; and suggest recommendations for improvement of public policies. First, it defines content, generic mechanisms, and efficiency of eco-governance. Second, it analyzes evolution of institutional environment, and market, private, public and hybrid modes of environmental management during transition and EU integration. Third, it assesses impact(s) of agricultural transformation on state of environment and identifies major eco-challenges, conflicts and risks. Finally, it suggests recommendations for public policies improvement for effective eco-management and security.

The purpose of this paper is twofold: firstly, to describe how environmental security issues grow rapidly in the convergence with other aspects of life in modern world, and, secondly, to furnish an example showing how the various elements of economy correlate with environmental security.

The land around former warehouses has an increased likelihood of ­contaminant exposure for local population. For phytoremediation of phytotoxic soil, polluted with pesticides, around the former warehouses, we propose a method of phytoremediation using phytotoxicity tolerant plants. In a soil polluted with wide range of obsolete pesticides, changes in quantitative proportions of plant species, structure, productivity and floristic features are observed. In the structure of such phytocenosis, perennial plant species with vegetative reproduction prevail. Current study demonstrates that pesticide-tolerant wild plants decrease DDT concentration in soil by rhyzodegradation and rhyzostabilization of the pesticide. Wild plants with translocation factor, i.e. the ratio of concentration in the shoots over the root concentration, below 1 are suitable for phytostabilization of DDT and prevention of its migration in conditions of polycomponent pesticide pollution. Resistance to a high pesticide pollution of pesticide-tolerant plants is acquired during vegetation under the influence of persistent toxicants.

In the rural areas building of sewerage systems and central wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) often brings too high costs, due to high distances from one farm to another and terrain configuration. Individual treatment systems for each farm are a good solution. The treatment wetlands for nine individual farms were constructed in Kaszubian Lake District in summer and autumn 2009. Three configurations of reed beds were chosen. In the paper design criteria and results from 2 years of operation are presented. The average BOD removal varied from 64% to 92% and N removal from 44% to 77%. Individual construction of the treatment facilities by farmers under the supervision of technical personnel makes the framers aware of the significance of each element of the treatment process and guarantees proper future operation of the system.

Screening of plants according to their potential to assimilate TNT and RDX was carried out. As a result, 3 plant species (soybean, alfalfa and ryegrass), 41 bacterial cultures, 14 strains of microscopic fungi, 3 strains of yeast were selected. Two bacterial consortia for bioconversion of TNT were composed. Selected cultures of microorganisms and consortia were tested in conditions of submerge cultivation on the areas containing 0.5 mM TNT. Optimum conditions of submerge cultivation (pH, temperature, duration of incubation) for selected active strains has been established. As a result of the experiments performed for water cleaning, it has been established that 12-days-old soybean seedlings effectively absorb [1-¹⁴ C] TNT from the polluted water and after 8 days approximately 80% of clearing effect is reached. It has been shown that that during destruction of biomass of plants by microscopic fungi Aspergillus niger J 3-5 the release of part of labeled TNT and its metabolites from plant biomass and the release of radioactive CO₂ takes place.

The behavior of radionuclides into the soils and their uptake by plants is a competitive physiological process. For radiocaesium and radiostrontium, the main competing elements are potassium and calcium, respectively. Migration velocity into the soil is lower for radiocaesium, compared to radiostrontium, and also it depends on soil type. The migration velocity of radionuclides into the soil is ­discussed, based on experimental works in northern Greece (a region seriously affected by the Chernobyl accident). Concerning ¹³⁷Cs, the vertical velocity was found to range from 0.1 to 0.3 cm/year. The major processes influencing ­radionuclide-transport processes within the rooting zone varies mainly with the soil type.

Radionuclides transfer from soil to plants is commonly quantified using the Transfer Factor (TF). The highest radiocaesium uptake by roots from soil to plants occurs in peaty, boggy soils, and is one to two orders of magnitude higher than in sandy soils; this uptake often exceeds that of crops grown on fertile agricultural soils by more than three orders of magnitude. The high radiocaesium uptake from peaty soil became important because such soils are used for the production of animal feeding crops. In long term, the amount of radiocaesium in agricultural products depends not only on soil type, but also on the density of contamination, soil moisture regime and texture, agrochemical properties and, finally, the species of plants.

Currently, due to natural processes and the applied agricultural countermeasures, the radiocaesium-activity concentrations in agricultural foodstuff produced in areas affected by the Chernobyl accident, are generally below local (national), regional (EU) and international action levels. However, in some limited areas, with high radionuclide contamination (i.e., the region of Gomel in Belarus), or with poor organic soils, the radiocaesium-activity concentrations in food products, especially milk, may exceed the higher permissible levels. Therefore, the application of ­additional specific measures might be still necessary.

The countermeasures used in crop production, in order to minimize the contamination of foodstuff, can be classified in two main groups: organizational and ­agrotechnical. The organizational countermeasures are mainly based on the ­principle of change of the use of land in order to: (a) increase the area of crops characterized by low accumulation of radionuclide, (b) abandon any land of very high contamination, and (c) substitute the existing crop by others, less critical (i.e., hay, grain, potatoes). The agrotechnical countermeasures include: (a) change of crops, (b) mechanical soil treatment, and (c) application of agrochemical measures. A short description of the above countermeasures and a comparison of their efficacy are presented in this paper.

Mining and Metallurgical Basin Bor exists over 100 years. During that period copper ore has been mined and processed by pyro metallurgical process, mainly for the rich copper ore. Flotation concentration process was introduced due to the decreasing copper grades in ore and started in 1930s. Since that time, mining production grew up generating large amounts of waste materials in form of solid, liquid and gas. They are all clearly visible all around of mining area. This paper deals with flotation testing results preceded by an attrition step, on copper minerals and pyrite obtained under laboratory condition. Also, the main problems with other type of wastes were discussed and some recommendation for its further treatment was given in the paper. All proposed concept are based on sustainable development in this area and wider.

The first attempts to apply electrolyzed aqueous solutions for water ­disinfection were performed in Russia in the late XIX century. However, the rapid development in the technology of electrolytic water oxidation and application of electrolyzed aqueous solutions have commenced in the USSR only in 1960s. At present, this technology is being developed in numerous countries around the world. It is reflected in an increased number of the publications in peer-reviewed journals and other informational sources. Moreover, a number of companies were ­established to pursue commercialization of the technology. The possibility of use of electrolyzed aqueous solutions as power disinfectants of potable water and swimming pools, bactericidal agent for disinfection and sterilization of living tissues, materials, medical and food processing equipment, etc. have been demonstrated in various trials. Nevertheless, the broader application of the technology is hindered by a lack of profound theoretical and experimental studies of production of electroactivated aqueous solutions and the mechanisms of their activity. Particularly, the characteristics of mass transport inside the electrolyzer and their relation to the constructional features of the apparatus and functional properties of produced solutions are poorly understood. We described the transport phenomena inside the permanently flowing electrochemical reactor and investigated the current–voltage relationships to gain understanding of the nature of the electrode reactions.

Electrochemistry along with the microbial and photochemical approaches is a well established method for the degradation of wastes. It has been frequently stressed, however, that these methods often cannot bring about complete mineralization of several compounds, and to this end various methods broadly classified as AOPs (Advanced Oxidation Processes) provide complementary and alternative means of environment remediation, as outlined in comprehensive recent surveys. These AO systems include ozone, hydrogen peroxide as well as a mixture of them called “Peroxone” which can be activated by Fenton reactions leading to formation of a large amount of OH radicals and, consequently, to a highly oxidizing ­environment. In this work we investigate incineration of some phenolic compounds (4-chlorophenol, 4-nitrophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, trans-3,4-­dihydroxycinnamic acid) and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) using different electrochemical systems involving ozone formation at PbO₂ based anodes: (1) direct electrolysis at constant current; (2) ex-situ use of O₃ and (3) combined use of anodically generated O₃ and H₂O₂ produced at a graphite cathode. According to the results described in this work, what we called direct electrolysis actually turns out to be a mediated process by oxygenated radical intermediates. Subsequently, the active oxygen intermediates can react with the organic pollutants. The homogeneous chemical decomposition by ozone is the basis of the ex-situ methods. It involves the direct reaction of O₃ with the organic substrate and/or a radical chain reaction initiated by radicals formed in the reaction of O₃ with OH⁻ or with HO ₂ ⁻ . The latter pathway is favoured by an increase of the pH. The examination of the results shows that the combined use of anodically generated O₃ and H₂O₂ produced at cathode is the most efficient approach.

Constructed (treatment) wetlands have been state of the art in wastewater treatment technology for decades. Design and operation are determined mainly on the basis of the results of long-term experience. Knowledge of the role of specific removal processes like anaerobic ammonium oxidation, predatory activity of protozoa, bdellovibrio, bacteriophages etc. in the rhizosphere is still insufficient. Basic research is necessary to investigate the transformations involved and to understand the interrelations of element cycles. New findings from research and practice will identify new and expanded applications for highly efficient treatment, particularly of industrial wastewaters. New technologies, such as the combination of wastewater treatment and energy production using “energy” plants, should be the focus of future research. Basic research on element cycle dynamics will help to understand the fundamental processes of greenhouse gas generation in wetlands.

Hurricane Katrina hit the Mississippi Gulf Coast on August 29, 2005 as a Category 3 hurricane at the mouth of the Pearl River, on the Mississippi/Louisiana border. Katrina is considered one of the costliest natural disasters in United States history. Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge (GBNWR) is located in the coastal zone of Jackson County in Mississippi, and Mobile County in Alabama. The Mississippi portion of GBNWR is part of the 18,400-acre Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR), which was designated in 1999. The objectives of this study were to map changes to wetland and forest habitats resulting from hurricane Katrina and to discuss the implications of changes in these habitats on biodiversity within the Grand Bay NERR. Pre- and post-Katrina subsets of the Grand Bay NERR were derived from Landsat images downloaded from The Coastal Change Analysis Program’s (C-CAP) website. Unsupervised classification and change detection analysis were applied to each Landsat-derived, 3-band datasets. The land cover change analysis revealed that hurricane Katrina caused a decrease in evergreen forest, and the conversion of evergreen forest into grassland. The major land cover changes were due to the expansion of open water. The increase in open water caused the decrease in estuarine emergent wetlands (salt marsh habitats) and the conversion of one type of land cover into another. These land cover changes could have a profound effect on the flora and fauna located within the reserve. Remote sensing technology appears to be a valuable tool for monitoring and implementing restoration and conservation strategies by the Grand Bay NERR managers.

Ratification of the Stabilization and Association Agreement of the European Union by the European Parliament have encouraged Serbia to be more proactive in achieving the remaining claims in this process. In the area of water management Serbia recognized the most demanding investment directives which are to be implemented. Numerous studies show that the major problem of Serbia is the way to ensure adequate water management. Problems related to water management are more obvious in everyday life. The Province of Vojvodina is in worse situation considering assessment that 40% of population drinks poor quality water which contains some toxic substance (like arsenic). The author presents the results of the research of implemented water quality in Vojvodina, which is related to the city of Novi Sad, and in other parts of the Province. Analysis results confirmed a legitimate concern for the quality of drinking water, excessive pumping of underground water and a small percentage of pollutants which have wastewater treatment systems, insufficient development of the sewerage network in the settlements and so on. In some towns, water supply problems have a long history due to lack of financial resources to solve them. In the light of the global economic crisis, we could not expect significant improvement in the nearest future. The aim of the paper is to show that unless there are urgent changes in the legislative framework of Serbia, at the time when all indicators of social development are rather problematic, expectation of any improvement in the nearest future represent a big issue. Vojvodina and Serbia have also numerous “hot spots” which need more help from international community in implementing positive practices and the provision of financial resources. Only an integral approach will ensure that Serbia does not continue endangering water resources and public health that may in certain circumstances constitute a threat to neighboring countries.

According to the World Health Organization, counterfeit medicines are medicines that are fraudulently mislabeled, contain wrong ingredients, absent of active ingredients, contain insufficient active or over-active ingredients or have fake packaging. The production and distribution of counterfeit medicines has become a significant problem in both affluent and developing nations. It is now widely believed that approximately 15% of drugs worldwide could be counterfeit, although in some developing countries it may be closer to 50% and rising. Due to consumer-initiated importation of prescription drugs through internet sites and other means of cross border purchasing, the potential risks of exposure to counterfeit products has increased dramatically. In addition, counterfeit medicines have become more difficult to detect as counterfeiters have become more creative and bold in the manufacturing of fake drugs. This poses an important threat to global public health and patient safety. In addition, the financial loss and irreparable damage to the reputation of pharmaceutical companies, health care centers and dispensing pharmacies is substantial. This paper briefly highlights the incidence and global impact of counterfeit medicines from a public health and economic perspective and addresses some of the strategies including identifying the risks and threat from counterfeit medicines as well as the analytical procedures for combating the growth, availability and trafficking of counterfeit drugs.

Consumption of the pharmaceutical products for both human and veterinary use is constantly increasing. As the consequence considerable amount of pharmaceuticals and its metabolites is released into the environment at therapeutic concentrations. The aim of this article is to describe patient practice and knowledge of unused drugs disposal in some rural areas of Croatia. Results showed that mostly older population live in these areas with considerable co morbidity of various chronic diseases, using considerable number of pharmaceuticals. Educational level and therapy compliance is low, as well as knowledge on how to dispose unused pharmaceuticals. On the other hand, due to the relative geographical isolation there is tendency to stock various pharmaceuticals as well as self-medication. Unused drugs end up improperly disposed in the ecologically delicate environment rich in drinking water supply. Strong support from primary health care is needed as well from pharmacies for returning of unused pharmaceutical when possible or clear advice how to properly dispose them if they cannot be returned.

Endemic (Balkan) nephropathy (EN) is a devastating chronic renal disease, affecting residents of rural villages situated near tributaries of the Danube river in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania. The disease affects at least 25,000 men and women, while another 75,000 are estimated to be at risk. The prevalence of confirmed EN cases in the endemic regions of Croatia has fluctuated between 2% and 10% of the village population. Significant epidemiologic features of EN include its presence only in certain villages; a familial pattern of disease; occurrence in adults and never in children under 15 years of age; restriction to rural farming populations; and strong association (∼50%) with transitional urothelial cell carcinoma of the upper urinary tract. This epidemiologic evidence strongly suggests that an environmental toxin is involved in the etiology of EN and its associated cancers.

Modern medicine pays a great attention to environmental security, i.e. to elimination of adverse health effects due to environmental factors. From the end of twentieth century, the environment became a source of urban and industry induced threats, such as: air and water microbe and chemical pollution, increased levels of ionizing radiation, and high risk of traumas. Essentially, the food, as very important environmental factor, has also changed in the modern era due to new agriculture technologies, refining, synthetic food additives, the influences of ultra-high and ultra-low temperatures, gene engineering, etc. On the other hand, one of the important achievements of the modern medicine is an introduction of functional foods for maintenance of homeostasis of human metabolism under the current environmental conditions. Imbalance between free radicals in organism induced by a variety of stresses and dietary antioxidants is one of the factors damaging human health. Bioantioxidants, i.e. antioxidants naturally engaged in metabolism, are of special value for medical purposes of prevention, treatment and rehabilitation. The adverse effects related to the bioantioxidant deficiency are generated by the accumulation of products arising from oxidation induced by free radicals. An increased need for bioantioxidants may emerge under specific conditions: (1) stress, (2) exposure to ionizing radiation, xenobiotics and another harmful man-made factors of the environment, (3) too much or too little physical activity due to traumas and rescue efforts, (4) administration of pharmaceuticals activating processes of oxidation induced by free radicals, such as antibiotics, narcotic and non-narcotic analgesics, and non-steroid anti-inflammatory preparations. The alcohol-free dietary concentrate Enoant developed by the National Institute for Vine and Wine “Magarach” represents a practical approach to use the Cabernet Sauvignon grape for prevention and treatment of various maladies. Experimental and clinical studies have shown curative and preventive benefits of Enoant as a part of methodology used in catastrophe medicine. These may contribute to the achievement, with better effectiveness, of clinical goals in complex treatment and rehabilitation of humans, possessing impaired functions of the cardio-respiratory system, red blood cells, the antioxidant system and lipid metabolism by improving the immunity and lessening of toxic side effects of radiation and pharmacotherapy. Data from experiments and clinical studies on effects exerted by Enoant indicate that the criteria for optimization of medical technologies should include both a sufficient daily dose of the concentrate and the absence of individual negative reactions or grape-induced allergy.

Neural functions are very sensitive to different kind treatment from ­pharmacology to environmental pollutants substances. Neurospecific proteins are involved in learning and memory. Thinner is a neurotoxic mixture which is widely used as an aromatic industrial solvent. This product has been shown to cause functional and structural changes in the central nervous system. We investigated the effect of exposure to high concentrations of thinner for 45 days on cognitive ­functions and the levels of neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAM) and lipid peroxidation products (LPO) in the hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum of rats. The actions of melatonin on the effects produced by thinner exposure were also tested. Thinner exposure caused a dramatic increase in LPO in all brain regions. Melatonin administration significantly reduced LPO in these brain regions. NCAM (180 kDa) was significantly decreased in hippocampus and cortex of thinner-exposed rats. Furthermore, thinner-exposed rats showed cognitive deficits in passive avoidance and Morris water maze tasks, whereas in the rats chronically treated with melatonin these effects were reversed. This study indicates that treatment with melatonin ­prevents learning and memory deficits caused by thinner exposure possibly by reducing oxidative stress and regulating neural plasticity.

Kidneys are targets of numerous toxicants due to anatomical, physiological and biochemical features of the organs. Factors contributing to the sensitivity of kidneys include large blood flow, presence of a variety of transporters, a lot of functionally necessary metabolizing enzymes, etc. This paper reviews some mechanisms of nephrotoxic action of widely distributed metal compounds and of an anticancer drug cisplatin as a model of drug induced renal damage. Cisplatin is known to induce nephropathy that is restricted primarily to the S₃, segment of the proximal tubule, with involvement of S₂, and S₁ segments at higher doses. This particularity appears to be derived from the distribution of enzymes and transport proteins important for uptake of cisplatin into proximal tubule cells: apical γ-glutamyltranspeptidase and the basolateral organic anion transport system. Regional distributions of transport mechanisms for binding proteins appear to be important in the expression of nephrotoxicity of cisplatin. According to the mechanism of damage the way to protect is proposed with application of antioxidants and mighty antioxidants such as cluster rhenium compounds with organic ligands that contain an unique quadruple bond are demonstrated as nephroprotectors in the model of tumor growth and cisplatin application.

The use of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) in Croatia has a very long tradition. Commercial gathering was economically important source of income in many Croatian regions. However, gathering in the wildness has a negative impact on biodiversity, collected plant material is not uniform and its price is significantly lower. Current production of medicinal and aromatic crops in Croatia is very limited. The MAP cultivation on family farms is usually marginal activity. MAP producers and processors generally agree that marketing opportunities do exist in case of a number of species. Natural MAP populations in Croatia show great biodiversity in morphological, biochemical and genetic level. The assessment of biodiversity is a starting point for efficient conservation of plant genetic resources and its use in plant breeding programmes. The main aim of the management of plant genetic resources is conservation, characterization, evaluation and documentation of the existing genetic biodiversity. For the purpose of conservation of these valuable genetic resources, The Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants has been established at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Characterization and evaluation of accessions in plant genebanks is traditionally based on morphological traits. Currently, the analysis of target species including Dalmatian sage (Salvia officinalis L.), Dalmatian pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium/Trevir./Sch. Bip.) and basils (Ocimum spp.) has been carried out on morphological, biochemical and genetic level.