1 Introduction
1.1 Additive manufacturing
1.2 Laser powder bed fusion
1.3 Micro-heat exchanger
Target thickness (μm) | Speed, V (mm/s) | Power, Q (W) | |
---|---|---|---|
Ti-6Al-4V | 100 | 600 | 100 |
800 | 100 | ||
800 | 75 | ||
800 | 50 | ||
1200 | 50 | ||
150 | 600 | 150 | |
800 | 175 | ||
1200 | 280 | ||
200 | 400 | 175 | |
600 | 250 | ||
250 | 200 | 150 | |
400 | 280 | ||
Inconel 718 | 100 | 400 | 100 |
800 | 175 | ||
150 | 400 | 175 | |
800 | 325 | ||
AlSi10Mg | 100 | 1300 | 80 |
650 | 60 | ||
800 | 50 | ||
1150 | 50 | ||
1600 | 50 | ||
150 | 1150 | 140 | |
550 | 100 | ||
1300 | 170 | ||
200 | 1050 | 210 | |
400 | 130 | ||
250 | 900 | 270 | |
250 | 150 |
1.4 . Thin wall fabrication in AM
1.5 Porosity
1.6 X-ray computed tomography
2 . Methods
2.1 Experiment
2.1.1 Build file preparation
2.1.2 . Test geometries
2.1.3 Parameter selection
Layer thickness (μm) | Raster | Contour 1 | Contour 2 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Power, Q (W) | Speed, V (mm/s) | Hatch (mm) | Power, Q (W) | Speed, V (mm/s) | Inward offset (mm) | Power, Q (W) | Speed, V (mm/s) | Inward offset (mm) | ||
Ti-6Al-4V | 30 | 280 | 1200 | 0.14 | 150 | 1250 | 0.02 | 150 | 1250 | 0 |
100 | 400 | |||||||||
250 | 400 | |||||||||
Inconel 718 | 40 | 285 | 960 | 0.11 | 138 | 390 | 0.012 | 80 | 800 | 0 |
225 | 1250 | |||||||||
125 | 400 | |||||||||
AlSi10Mg | 30 | 370 | 1300 | 0.19 | 80 | 900 | 0.02 | 85 | 900 | 0 |
170 | 350 |
Absorptivity | Melting temperature (K) | Thermal conductivity (W/m-K) | Density (kg/m3) | Heat capacity (J/kg-K) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ti-6Al-4V [8] | 0.5 [9] | 1913 | 6.7 | 4430 | 526 |
Inconel 718 [10] | 0.32 [11] | 1643 | 11.4 | 8220 | 435 |
AlSi10Mg [8] | 0.32 [8] | 849 | 110 | 2670 | 915 |
2.2 Characterization
2.2.1 Dimensional accuracy
2.2.2 Synchrotron-based X-ray micro-tomography
2.2.3 Surface metrology
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Laser scan strategy
3.2 Fabrication
3.3 Dimensional analysis of thin wall
3.4 Porosity
Scan mode | Raster (R)/single-bead (S) | Contour 1 | Contour 2 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Power (W) | Speed (mm/s) | Hatch (mm) | Power (W) | Speed (mm/s) | Offset inward (mm) | Power (W) | Speed (mm/s) | Offset inward (mm) | ||
Ti-6Al-4V | R | 280 | 1200 | 0.14 | 150 | 1250 | 0.02 | 150 | 1250 | 0 |
S | 280 | 1200 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Inconel 718 | R | 285 | 960 | 0.11 | 138 | 390 | 0.012 | 80 | 800 | 0 |
S | 285 | 960 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
AlSi10Mg | R | 370 | 1300 | 0.19 | 80 | 900 | 0.02 | 85 | 900 | 0 |
S | 370 | 1300 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Vertical single-bead (%) | 45° single-bead (%) | Vertical raster (%) | 45° raster (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ti-6Al-4V | < 0.01 | - | 0.23 | 0.13 |
Inconel 718 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.12 |
AlSi10Mg | 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | 0.02 |
3.5 Surface roughness
3.6 Thermal distortion
3.7 Design guidelines
-
Small size range (Ti-6Al-4V: < 141 μm; Inconel 718: < 252 μm; AlSi10Mg: < 146 μm): Thin walls in this size range are beyond the capability of raster mode and can only be built using single-bead mode where the wall thickness is solely controlled by the melt pool size instead of the wall dimension in the CAD file. In other words, thin walls with the correct dimension can be fabricated using appropriate power and speed combination in single-bead mode.
-
Medium size range (Ti-6Al-4V: between 141 and 300 μm; Inconel 718: between 252 and 300 μm; AlSi10Mg: between 146 and 350 μm): Thin walls in this size range can be fabricated using both single-bead and raster modes; however, single-bead mode is recommended for this thickness range because the raster path width is limited when the feature dimension is small. It potentially turns raster pattern into pulse welding pattern which makes the geometry difficult to predict and leads the occurrence of unmelted region. The results from Fig. 5 demonstrate that keyhole process parameters can be used in the fabrication of thin walls without causing failure. This is critical since using keyhole parameters in single-bead mode may be the only solution for fabricating a thin wall in this thickness range.
-
Large size range (Ti-6Al-4V: > 300 μm; Inconel 718: > 300 μm; AlSi10Mg: > 350 μm): Thin walls in this size range can be easily built using raster mode; however, the thickness of the CAD model should be greater than the desired thickness according to the calibration results shown in Fig. 6 so as to compensate for the effects of scan path and material shrinkage. Note that the final wall dimension is also inclination angle–dependent and alloy-dependent (see Fig. 7).