1 Background
Like many other developing and developed countries in the world, the government of Tanzania has been striving to introduce Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
1 in education since 1997 when the first official computer studies syllabus was introduced in secondary schools (Hare
2007). In teacher education, technology was introduced through the “ICT for Teacher education program” (ICT-Connect-TED) project in 2002. The program aimed at improving the quality of teachers through the use of ICT (Hare
2007; Tilya
2008). Until 2004, ICT-Connect-TED managed to provide computers and a networking infrastructure to all 34 teacher training colleges in Tanzania. Since 2004, all teacher training colleges, including universities have computers and internet connection which enable the pre-service training teachers to have access to teaching and learning materials through internet. Pre-service teachers are learning on how to download pictures, videos and animations from the internet and use them for teaching purposes. In 2005, ICT was introduced in schools through the e-school forum to design programs supporting the introduction and use of ICT in secondary schools (Hare
2007). The project covered a wide range of activities including ICT infrastructure development in schools, technical resources, student management, content and curriculum development, program co-ordination and funding. Unfortunately, this initiative covered mostly secondary schools. Primary schools were not part of this program, however, efforts are being made to integrate technology in primary schools as well. Already the government of Tanzania has developed the curriculum for integration for ICT in pre-primary and primary education level (Swartz and Wachira
2010). As an effort to ensure effective integration of technology in teaching, ICT for teachers’ professional development (ICT-TPD) framework was developed in 2009 to guide teachers’ professional development programs aimed at developing technology integration competencies. The framework focused on the development of teachers’ technology integration knowledge and skills in science, mathematics and English subjects (United Republic of Tanzania
2009). This was an in-service training program aimed at ensuring that teachers are effectively using the ICT tools that were available in schools. While the government of Tanzania has done most of the effort to ensure that schools with electricity connection have access to computers, there is still a big challenge on the internet accessibility. In most of the schools teachers are still using modems to connect their computers to internet through mobile phone companies such as Vodafone, Airtel and Tanzania Telecommunication Company (TTCL). In schools, internet connection is unreliable and very slow, while at teacher training colleges and universities have reliable internet which is as well supplied by mobile phone companies, but the universities and teacher training colleges are capable of buying bigger bundles, thus, making the internet faster and reliable.
In support of the ICT-TPD policy three small scale intervention studies were conducted in the 2010 to 2012 timeframe, in which a professional development program was designed and evaluated (Kafyulilo
2013; Kafyulilo et al.
2014,
2015). The studies adopted the collaborative design of technology-enhanced science and mathematics lessons in teacher teams, as an approach for teachers’ professional development. Teams of 3–6 science/mathematics pre-service and in-service teachers collaboratively designed technology-enhanced lessons and taught the designed lessons to peers (microteaching – pre-service teachers) or in the classroom (in-service teachers). The designed and taught lessons were later on reflected upon with peers.
The professional development program aimed at developing technology integration knowledge and skills for science and mathematics pre-service teachers, who were college students (study 1, Spring 2010) (Kafyulilo et al.
2015) and in-service teachers or practicing teachers, conducted with teachers from a school which is nicknamed as school A (study 2, Spring 2011, Kafyulilo et al.
2014). Study 3 was conducted with practicing teachers from two schools nicknamed as school B and C. (Spring 2012) (Kafyulilo
2013). The professional development aimed at developing teachers’ technology integration knowledge and skills. In the professional development program, teachers became acquainted with Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), which is the framework for describing the knowledge required by teachers to effectively integrate technology in science and mathematics teaching (cf. Koehler and Mishra
2005). In all studies, teachers learning took place through a workshop in which they explored technology applications for their subjects, and collaboratively designed technology-enhanced science and mathematics lessons, which they used in their teaching and reflected upon with their peers. The findings of the three studies conducted showed that the participants in the professional development program developed their technology-integration knowledge and skills as was revealed through self-reported data, lesson plans evaluation, interviews, focus group discussion and observations of the lessons in the classrooms. Studies by Agyei and Voogt (
2012), Alayyar et al. (
2011) and Jimoyiannis (
2010) also show that professional development programs that involve teachers in the collaborative design of technology-enhanced science or mathematics lessons are promising for teachers’ development of technology integration knowledge and skills and lead to effects that are sustainable over time (cf. Agyei and Voogt
2014).
The focus of professional development programs is on the development of knowledge and skills to be used after finishing the professional development (Harvey and Hurworth
2006; Zehetmeier
2009). The aim of the current study was to investigate if and why pre-service and in-service teachers continued to use technology (or not) in their science and mathematics teaching after attending the professional development program. This study was conducted in 2013 as a follow up to the three previous studies, hence 6–18 months after pre- and in-service teachers participated in the professional development program. Continuation of technology use in this study is defined as using the knowledge, skills and beliefs about technology-integration (TPACK) as acquired during the professional development program for the preparation and teaching of science and mathematics lessons.
1.1 Theoretical framework
Baldwin and Ford (
1988) describe the continuation of practices, knowledge, skills and beliefs in terms of the transfer of training, which is described as the degree to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge, skills and beliefs gained from training to a job. Baldwin and Ford present a training transfer model, which has three parts; the training input factors, the training output, and the transfer conditions. According to Baldwin and Ford (
1988) there are three training input factors that determine the transfer and maintenance of knowledge, skills and beliefs over time. These factors include the training design, trainee characteristics and work environment.
The factors presented by Baldwin and Ford (
1988), as determinant of the transfer of the training, are presented in this study as factors determining the continuous use of technology in teaching and are categorized as follows: the training design is presented in this study as
professional development factors and comprise of the teachers’ perceived values of the professional development program, and the opportunity for continuous learning (Pritchard and McDiarmid
2005; Torodova and Osburg
2010). Trainee characteristics are presented as
personal factors and comprises of teacher belief, knowledge and skills, time and engagement (Buabeng-Andoh
2012). The environment is presented as
institutional factors, comprising the accessibility to technology, support from the management, and environment (Almekhlafi and Almeqdadi
2010; Eickelmann
2011). Since the focus of the professional development program being evaluated by this study was about technology integration in science and mathematics teaching,
technological factors (cf. Buabeng-Andoh
2012) were investigated in addition to the three factors presented by Baldwin and Ford (
1988).
1.2 Research questions
This study was conducted to determine the likelihood of the pre-service and in-service teachers’ continuation of the use of technology in their science and mathematics teaching after having participated in the professional development program. The main research question addressed in this study was “
What factors affect the continuation of technology use in science and mathematics teaching among pre-
service and in-
service teachers who attended the professional development program?” This main research question was further divided into two sub-questions:
1.
To what extent are the pre-service and in-service teachers who previously attended the professional development program still using technology in science and mathematics teaching?
2.
What are the professional development, personal, institutional, and technological factors that affect continuation of technology use in science and mathematics teaching of pre-service and in-service teachers who attended the professional development program?
1.3 Participants
From each implementation (pre-service teachers (N = 13) in Spring 2010, teachers from school A (N = 10) in Spring 2011 and teachers from school B (N = 10) and C (N = 9) in Spring 2012) of the professional development program a biology, physics and chemistry teacher/ math pre-service teacher was selected to participate in this study. All teachers who participated in this study were selected on the basis of their prior participation in the professional development, program. In addition to the teachers, the school management, which was represented by the deputy principals of each school, also participated in the interview. The deputy principals who participated in this study did not participate in the professional development. However, their involvement in this study was considered important in establishing whether or not there was a support from the school to the teachers in the use of technology in teaching. School A and school B are government schools each with one computer lab and approximately 30 computers, of which, only one computer in school A and two in school B were working. School C is a private school with three computer labs and approximately 20 working computers in each lab.
1.4 Instruments
A semi-structured interview guide for the pre- and inservice teachers involved in the study (see Appendices
A and
B) was developed by the researcher to assess the professional development program, and the institutional, personal and technological factors that were affecting the teachers’ continuation of technology use. Pre-service teachers participated in the interview through a phone call; whereas teachers from school A, B and C, participated in a face-to-face interview. Examples of interview questions were “How often do you use technology in your teaching?” and “What are the factors determining technology integration in teaching at your school?”.
In addition the deputy principals of the three schools (A, B, and C respectively) participated in an interview (see appendix). The interview guide (see Appendix
C) was developed by the researcher to investigate the principals’ awareness of the professional development program, their opinion regarding technology integration in teaching and factors that influence teachers’ use of technology in teaching in their school. Example questions were “How often do you use technology in your teaching”, “What is your opinion about the use of technology in teaching”, and “To what extent does your school management support you in using technology in your teaching?”
1.5 Data analysis
The qualitative data from the interviews were transcribed and coded by using the codes that were generated from the study’s theoretical framework (deductive coding) (Miles and Huberman
1994). A random sample of 4 interviews was coded by a second person. The inter-coder reliability was 0.84 Cohen’s Kappa which according to Viera and Garrett (
2005) indicates almost perfect agreement. The codes and examples of quotations are summarized in Table
2. Qualitative data analysis software, Atlas-ti, version 6.2, was used to code interviews.
Table 2
Deductive codes and their quotations
Continuation of technology use | Frequency of use | The frequency of technology use | I always use technology in my teaching… |
Type of technology use | The type of technology use | I used internet to search biology teaching materials and for test preparation |
Purpose of technology use | The purpose of technology use | Some science concepts are difficult to describe without technology, so I prefer the use of animations to demonstrate them |
Professional development program (PDP) | The perceived value of the PDP | Teachers’ satisfaction with the PDP they attended | The PDP enabled us to know how to use technology to improve science teaching |
Opportunity for learning | Opportunity for a workshop or training on technology integration | Never had the opportunity to participate in any learning program |
Knowledge and skills | Knowledge and skills of using technology | I have the basic knowledge; I can use MS word, internet, and PowerPoint |
Personal factor | Beliefs | Teachers’ perceptions towards the use of technology | Technology arouses the students’ interests in science subjects |
Time | Time available for preparation of technology-enhanced lessons | If we make a good planning, there can be enough time |
Engagement | Teachers motivation to use technology | We want to use technology but we are challenged by the lack of technological tools |
Accessibility | Presence of technological tools at the school | The school has computers but they are not for teaching |
Institutional factor | Support | Rewards or incentives from the school administration | No any kind of rewards or incentive… nobody cares whether you use technology or not. |
Environment | Whether or not the classrooms support technology use | Classrooms are overcrowded with up to 80 students. |
Technological factor | Effectiveness | The impact of the technology on students learning | It improves students learning in science |
Ease of use | How easy it is to use technology | It depends on the choice of the technology |
3 Discussion and conclusion
This study investigated the pre-service and in-service teachers’ continuous use of technology in science and mathematics teaching after the end of a professional development program. The study also investigated the factors determining teachers’ continuous use of technology in teaching after the professional development program had ended.
The findings from this study show that, the continuation of the use of technology in teaching and learning was not the result of a single factor, but the combination of all factors presented by Baldwin and Ford (
1988). For example the findings of this study showed that in schools where there were technological tools, but where teachers were not motivated and lacked support from the school management, teachers did not use technology in teaching. In addition a professional development program that can enable teachers to develop knowledge and skills of integrating technology in teaching without access to technological tools obviously did not lead to the integration of technology in teaching.
Earlier findings by Hare (
2007), and Swartz and Wachira (
2010) reported the incidences of Tanzanian teachers’ using technology for administration rather than instructional purposes. This was also found in this study where teachers particularly from school A were only using technology for test preparation and for keeping the students’ records. However, the findings from pre-service teachers and in-service teachers in school B are in-line with those of Agyei and Voogt (
2014) who reported a successful transfer of learning to the job, after a similar approach of professional development program. The findings from school B and also from pre-service teachers entails that the professional development program that was introduced in schools and teachers training college, was effective. Poor transfer of training to the job, as observed in school A and C, were most likely to have been influenced by personal, technological and institutional factors.
In schools A and C, the institutional factors were found to have a strong impact on the transfer of the training to the job. Many of the teachers who did not continue to use technology in teaching, reported the lack of motivation and support from the school management and also the lack of electricity in classrooms. Eickelmann (
2011) report the support for individuals in schools, support from peers, participation in decision making and accessibility to technology (cf. Almekhlafi and Almeqdadi
2010) as important factors contributing to teachers’ continuation of the use of technology. Evidence from school B shows that, although there were only two computers at the school and there was no internet connection, teachers used their laptops, and modems to download teaching materials and use them for teaching. However, school C, which had three computer labs full of computers and internet connection, did not use technology at all. This means that, the presence of technology alone, and the training of the teachers are not sufficient to make teachers use technology in teaching. The interplay between different factors is the most important in ensuring a continuation of the professional development program.
A new finding from this study, which could also be of interest for future professional development plan is the influence of the students. Teachers from school B, reported the influence of the students who were taught by using technology during the professional development program, to have influenced them to use technology. Students were asking teachers to teach them by using technology as they were taught with technology during the professional development program. It was reported that, the students did not only ask the teachers, but also asked the school management for the use of technology in science learning. This made, both the school management and the subject teachers to reorganize themselves for the use of technology in teaching. This also shows the relevance of a professional development program in which teachers practice the integration of technology in actual teaching.
Based on the findings of this study, we argue that, the professional development program was an important determinant of the teachers’ continuous use of technology in teaching after the professional development ended. The professional development program they attended the collaborative design of technology-enhanced science lessons in teams, implementation of the designed lessons and reflection with peers. These components of the professional development program were reported to be important for the teachers’ understanding of various technological tools that can support learning, and how they can improve teaching of difficult science topics (cf. Jimoyiannis
2010).
Although the findings of this study agree with those of Eickelmann (
2011) and Torodova and Osburg (
2010) who report knowledge and skills as important determinant of technology integration, they differ from Agyei and Voogt (
2014), who reported that perceptions (belief) is a significant predictor of the continuous use of technology in teaching. However, the findings in this study showed that majority of teachers had a positive belief about technology and yet their use was low. This entails that, factors other than their belief had influenced their continuation of the use technology in science and mathematics teaching. Taking the example of schools that positively integrated technology in their teaching, we can argue that, the combination of technological, professional development, institutional and personal factors had influence on the continuous use of technology in teaching.
The findings in this study can have implications for future professional development programs that aim to develop technology integration knowledge and skills. First, the professional development factor was important for the teachers’ continuous use of technology in teaching, because it initiated the development of technology integration knowledge and skills. Second, conditions for a long term impact of the professional development program depends on the teachers’ technology integration knowledge and skills, accessibility to technology and the ease of use of the available technology. Third, support form school management is essential for teachers’ continuous use of technology in teaching.
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