Top

Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment

Published in:

01-04-2023 | Original Paper

Natural stone heterogeneities and discontinuities: an overview and proposal of a classification system

Authors: Maria Luísa Pereira, Amélia Dionísio, Madalena Barata Garcia, Luísa Bento, Pedro Amaral, Marco Ramos

Published in: Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment | Issue 4/2023

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

Portugal has a relevant role in natural stone production and trading. The national sector has been trying to follow the requirements of the Fourth Industrial Era, where automation of stone processing operations is necessary to increase productivity, balance the decreasing workforce and reduce stone waste. The identification of defects or defective areas in stone slabs is a time-consuming operation: not only highly subjective, dependent on the operator experience, but also disconnected from geological knowledge. Despite recent advances in automatic pattern recognition of stone products’ surface, stone selection lacks a geological foundation. Thus, this paper aims to discuss the terminology of stone defects and singularities applied to stone materials and in the stone selection process. A classification system of natural stone heterogeneities and discontinuities is developed to be used by stone operators and to be applied in future image analysis research. The system, based on three main classifiers (colour heterogeneities, textural and structural heterogeneities, and discontinuities) is validated by seventeen different Portuguese stone varieties and appears to be a suitable qualitative descriptor of stone slabs and tiles, showing flexibility in its use.

previous article Roof cutting mechanism and surrounding rock control of small pillar along-gob roadway driving in super high coal seam

next article Brittle failure modes of underground powerhouses: an insight based on true triaxial compression tests

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Akkoyun O, Fuat Toprak Z (2012) Fuzzy-based quality classification model for natural building stone blocks. Eng Geol 133–134:66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.02.016CrossRef

Allaby M (2020) A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. Oxford University Press, 5th edn. ISBN: 9780198839033, 720

Alliance Minerals (2014) About Stone – Stone Defects Description. http://alliance-minerals.com/2013/12/stone-defects-description/. Accessed 28 April 2021

Alper Selver M, Akay O, Alim F, Bardakci A, Ölmez M (2011) An automated industrial conveyor belt system using image processing and hierarchical clustering for classifying marble slabs. Robot and Comput Integr Manuf 27:164–176CrossRef

Aly N, Wangler T, Török Á (2018) The effect of stylolites on the deterioration of limestone: possible mechanisms of damage evolution. Environ Earth Sci 77:565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7746-2CrossRef

Anders MH, Laubach SE, Scholz CH (2014) Microfractures: A review. J Struct Geol 69 Part B:377–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.05.011

Anon (1979) Classification of rocks and soils for engineering geological mapping part 1: Rock and soil materials. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 19:364–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02600503CrossRef

Anon (1995) The description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes: Engineering Group Working Party Report (Geol. Soc. London). Q J Eng Geol 28(3):207–242

Ashmole I, Motloung, M (2008) Dimension stone: The latest trends in exploration and production technology. Proceedings of Surface Mining, The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pp 35–70

ASTM C119–04a (2004) Standard Terminology Relating to Dimension Stone, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, www.astm.org

Basu A, Celestino TB, Bortolucci AA (2009) Evaluation of rock mechanical behaviours under uniaxial compression with reference to assessed weathering grades. Rock Mech Rock Eng 42:73–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-008-0170-2CrossRef

Bell FG (2007) Engineering geology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York, Oxford, Paris, San Diego, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, 592

Bianconi F, Bello R, Fernández A, González E (2015) On comparing colour spaces from a performance perspective: application to automated classification of polished natural stones. In: V. Murino et al. (ed) ICIAP 2015 Workshops, LNCS 9281, pp 71–78

Bissell, HJ, Beck KC, Folk RL, Crook KAW, Haaf E ten, Schwab FL (2021) Sedimentary rock. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/sedimentary-rock. Accessed 21 January 2021

Bonifazi G, D'Aniello L, Serranti S (2006) Ornamental stone quality control by imaging based spectroscopy. XI International Congress for Mathematical Geology: Quantitative Geology from Multiple Sources (IAMG 2006), S06–02, Liège, Belgium

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020) Xenolith. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/xenolith. Accessed 24 Jan 2021

Brown ET, Richards LR, Barr MV (1977) Shear strength characteristics of the Delabole Slates. Proc Conf Rock Eng 1:33–51, Newcastle University

Brzovic A, Villaescusa E (2007) Rock Mass Characterization of Primary Copper Ore for Caving at the EL Teniente Mine, Chile. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Rock Mass Classification in Underground Mining, Vancouver

Carvalho JMF (1998) O Alpinina: variedade de Calcário Ornamental da Região de Alvados. Estud Notas trab Inst Geol Min. (in Portuguese)

Carvalho JMF (2011) Prospeção de Rochas Ornamentais. Portugal Mineral 3ª Edição especial – Indústria Extrativa, ANIET:97–103 (in Portuguese)

Carvalho JMF, Henriques P, Falé P, Luíz G (2008) Decision criteria for the exploration of ornamental-stone deposits: Application to the marbles of the Portuguese Estremoz Anticline. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 45:1306–1319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2008.01.005CrossRef

Carvalho JMF, Lisboa JV, Casal Moura A, Carvalho C, Sousa LMO, Leite MM (2013a) Evaluation of the Portuguese ornamental stone resources. Key Eng Mater 548:3–9CrossRef

Carvalho JMF, Carvalho CI, Lisboa JV, Casal Moura A, Leite MM (2013b) Portuguese Ornamental Stones Geonovas 26:15–22

Casal Moura A (2000) Granitos e Rochas Similares de Portugal. Instituto Geológico e Mineiro, Lisboa, ISBN 972–98469–5–2. 179 (in Portuguese)

Casal Moura A, Carvalho C, Almeida I, Saúde JG, Farinha Ramos J, Augusto J, Rodrigues JD, Carvalho J, Martins L., Matos MJ, Machado M, Sobreiro MJ, Peres M, Martins N, Bonito N, Henriques P, Sobreiro S (2007) Mármores e Calcários Ornamentais de Portugal. INETI (National Institute of Engineering, Technology, and Innovation), ISBN 978–972–676–204–1. 383 (in Portuguese)

Cosi M (2015) The dimension stone sector: new perspectives on the global market and on the reporting of international mining standards. Eur Geol 24–30

da Silva A, Gil MM (2020) Industrial processes optimization in digital marketplace context: A case of study in ornamental stone sector. Results Eng 7(100152):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2020.100152CrossRef

Direção Geral de Energia e Geologia (DGEG) (2019–2020) Glossário Geral para o setor da Pedra Ornamental. Anexo ao Boletim de Minas – Tema em destaque: Rochas Ornamentais 54, 172 (in Portuguese)

Direção Geral de Energia e Geologia (DGEG) (2020) Informação Estatística da Indústria Extrativa nº. 22, Período de dados de 2015–2019. Estatísticas da Indústria extrativa. (in portuguese) https://www.dgeg.gov.pt/media/x3fhiumv/informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o-estatistica-iextractiva-22.pdf

Dias L, Rosado T, Candeias A, Mirão J, Caldeira AT (2020) A change in composition, a change in colour: The case of limestone sculptures from the Portuguese National Museum of Ancient Art. J Cult Herit 42:255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2019.07.025CrossRef

Didier J (1989) Enclave. In: Petrology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30845-8_62

Driscoll R (1995) Assessment of damage in low-rise buildings, with particular reference to progressive foundation movement. BRE Digest 251. ISBN 1–86081–045–4

Emser Tile (2013) Common Stone Characteristics (Not Defects). Emser Tile, Santa Monica Boulevard, Los Angeles. http://pdf.lowes.com/useandcareguides/759147801833_use.pdf

EN 12440 (2017) Natural stone – Denomination Criteria, European Standard, CEN/TC 246

EN 12670 (2019) Natural stone – Terminology, European Standard, CEN/TC 246

EN 12407 (2019) Natural stone test methods – Petrographic examination, European Standard, CEN/TC 246

Ferreira A, Giraldi G (2017) Convolutional Neural Network approaches to granite tiles classification. Expert Syst Appl 84:1–11CrossRef

Fookes PG, Gourley GS, Ohikere C (1988) Rock weathering in engineering time. Q J Eng Geol 21:33–57CrossRef

Flah M, Suleiman AR, Nehdi ML (2020) Classification and quantification of cracks in concrete structures using deep learning image-based techniques. Cem Concr Compos 114(103781):1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103781CrossRef

Folk RL (1962) Spectral subdivision of limestone types. In: Ham, W. E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate Rocks – A Symposium: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 1, pp 62–84

Frazão J (2018) Evolução da Força de Trabalho do Setor dos Recursos Minerais no início da Era Digital. PhD Dissertation, ISCTE, Lisbon, Portugal (in Portuguese)

Freire-Lista DM, Fort R (2017) Exfoliation microcracks in building granite. Implications for Anisotropy Eng Geol 220:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.01.027CrossRef

Freire-Lista DM, Vidal Gonçalves G, Vazquez P (2022a) Weathering detection of granite from three asynchronous historical quarries of Sabrosa municipally (North Portugal). J Cult Herit 58:199–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.10.008CrossRef

Freire-Lista DM, Campos BB, Costa MR, Sanjurjo-Sánchez J (2022b) Main building granite of São Tiago de Folhadela Parish Church (North of Portugal). Petrography, glyptography, construction phases and decay by pyrite oxidation. Constr Build Mater 350 128904:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128904

Haileslassie F, Leta A, Desalegn G, Kalayu M (2019) Classification of marble Using Image Processing. Int J Data Sci Tech 5(3):57–65. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijdst.20190503.11

Hudson JA, Harrison JP (1997) Engineering Rock Mechanics – An Introduction to the Principles. 1^st edn. Kidlington, UK. Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 978-0-08-043864-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-043864-1.X5000-9

Iglesias C, Martínez J, Taboada J (2018) Automated vision system for quality inspection of slate slabs. Comput Ind 99:119–129CrossRef

Ingham J (2013) Geomaterials under the microscope. Academica Press, 1st edn, ISBN: 978–0–12–407230–5, 192

International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1978) Suggested methods for the quantitative description in rock masses. Int J Rock Mec Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15(6):319–368

Kachanubal T, Udomhunsakul S (2008) Rock textures classification based on textural and spectral features. Int J Sci Res Innov 2(3):658–664

Kardan Moghaddam H, Rajaei A, Kardan Moghaddam H (2018) Marble Slabs Classification System Based on Image Processing (Ark Marble Mine in Birjand). Civ Eng J 4(1): 107–116. https://doi.org/10.28991/cej-030972

Kovaleva GA (1974) Mechanical properties of the principal rock-forming minerals of the Khibiny apatite – nepheline deposits. Sov Min 10:5330–5537. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02502964CrossRef

Kranz RL (1983) Microcracks in rocks: a review. Tectonophysics 100(1–3):449–480CrossRef

Kullberg JC, Prego A (2019) The Historical Importance and Architectonic Relevance of the “Extinct” Arrábida Breccia. Geoheritage 11:87–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-017-0272-xCrossRef

Lawn B (1993) Fracture of brittle solids. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRef

Lindqvist JE, Åkesson U, Malaga K (2007) Microstructure and functional properties of rock materials. Mater Charact 58:1183–1188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2007.04.012CrossRef

Luodes H, Selonen O, Pääkönen K (2000) Evaluation of dimension stone in gneissic rocks – a case history from southern Finland. Eng Geol 52:209–223CrossRef

Manjunatha BR, Venkat Reddy D, Krishnakumar KN, Balakrishna K, Manjunatha HV, Gurumurthy GP (2014) Selection Criteria for Decorative Dimension Stones. Int J Earth Sci Eng 7(2):408–414

Martínez J, López M, Matías JM, Taboada J (2013) Classifying slate tile quality using automated learning techniques. Math Comput Model 57(7–8):1716–1721CrossRef

Montani C (2020) XXXI Marble and Stones in the world Report 2020. Aldus Casa di Edizioni, Carrara

NSI - Natural Stone Institute (2016). The Geology of Stone. In: An excerpt from the Dimension Stone Design Manual, Version VIII (May 2016). Marble Institute of America. https://pubs.naturalstoneinstitute.org/pub/2BBAC4C9-9976-207C-CDB9-34962DC40706

Palmström A (1995) RMi - A Rock Mass Characterization System for Rock Engineering Purposes. Dissertation, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Palmström A (2001) Measurement and characterization of rock mass jointing. In: Sharma, VM and Saxena KR (ed.) In-situ Characterization of rocks. AA Balkema, Publishers Lise/Abingdon/Exton (PA)/Tokio

Park WC, Schot EH (1968) Stylolites: their nature and origin. J Sediment Res 38(1):175–191. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D71910-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865DCrossRef

Pereira ML, da Silva P, Fernandes I, Chastre C (2021) Characterization and correlation of engineering properties of basalts. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80:2889–2910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02107-7CrossRef

Pires V, Rosa LG, Dionísio A (2014) Implications of exposure to high temperatures for stone cladding requirements of three Portuguese granites regarding the use of dowel–hole anchoring systems. Constr Build Mater 64:440–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.03.035CrossRef

Proença MC, Aniceto M, Santos PN, Freitas JC (2016) Automatic Detection of Defects in Ornamental Limestone Using Wavelets. Int J Comput Inf Eng 10(5):864–869

Shadmon A (1993) Dimension Stone – Its impact on environment and constructional applications – The role of engineering geology. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 48:119–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02594984CrossRef

Shang J, Hencher SR, West LJ (2016) Tensile Strength of Geological Discontinuities Including Incipient Bedding, Rock Joints and Mineral Veins. Rock Mech Rock Eng 49:4213–4225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-016-1014-xCrossRef

Shang J, West LJ, Hencher SR, Zhao Z (2018) Tensile strength of large-scale incipient rock joints: a laboratory investigation. Acta Geotech 13:869–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-017-0620-7CrossRef

Sidiropoulos GK, Ouzounis AG, Papakostas GA, Sarafis IT, Stamkos A, Solakis G (2021) Texture Analysis for Machine Learning Based Marble Tiles Sorting. IEEE 11th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (CCWC 2021), art. no. 9376086, pp. 45–51

Silva A, Silva J, Almeida I (2016) The role of digital technologies in the innovation of collaborative networks: the case of the ornamental stones in Portugal, The 20th Cambridge International Manufacturing Symposium, September

Silva ZCG (2019) Lioz - a Royal Stone in Portugal and a Monumental Stone in Colonial Brazil. Geoheritage 11(1):165–175CrossRef

Simmons G, Richter D (1976) Microcracks in rock. In: Strens RGJ (ed) The Physics and Chemistry of Minerals and Rocks. Wiley, New York, pp 105–137

Sousa JMC, Caldas Pinto JR (2004) Comparison of Intelligent Classification Techniques Applied to Marble Classification. International Conference Image Analysis and Recognition. Springer, Berlin, pp 802–809

Sousa LMO (2013) Petrophysical properties and durability of granites employed as building stone: a comprehensive evaluation. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73:569–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-013-0553-9CrossRef

Sousa LMO, Gonçalves BMM (2012) Color assessment of granitic rocks and implications for their ornamental utilization. Color Res Appl 37:375–383CrossRef

Sousa LMO, Lourenço JMM (2015) Building Stone Evaluation Applied to Weathered Granites – The Example of Amarelo Real Granite (Northern Portugal). In: G. Lollino et al. (ed.), Engineering Geology for Society and Territory – Volume 5, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 273–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09048-1_53

Tereso M, Rato L, Gonçalves T (2020) Classificação automática de Rochas Ornamentais utilizando técnicas de Aprendizagem Automática. 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Seville (in Portuguese)

Turichsev A, Hadjigeorgiou J (2015) Experimental and Numerical Investigations into the Strength of Intact Veined Rock. Rock Mech Eng 48:1897–1912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-014-0690-xCrossRef

Turichsev A, Hadjigeorgiou J (2017) Quantifying the effects of vein mineralogy, thickness, and orientation on the strength of intact veined rock. Eng Geol 226:199–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.06.009CrossRef

VALORPEDRA (2013) Estudo prospetivo do Cluster da pedra natural. Associação Valorpedra, Borba (in Portuguese)

Vazquez P, Benavente D, Montiel D, Gomez-Heras M (2022) Mineralogical transformations in granitoids during heating at fire-related temperatures. Appl Sci 12, 188:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12010188

Venkat Reddy D (2002) Evaluation of Natural Defects in Commercial Decorative Rock Deposits in Karnataka. India Gondwana Research 5(2):557–560CrossRef

Yarahmadi R, Bagherpour R, Sousa LMO, Thaerian S-G (2015) How to determine the appropriate methods to identify the geometry of in situ rock blocks in dimension stones. Environ Earth Sci 74(6):6779–6790CrossRef

Yarahmadi R, Bagherpour R, Thaerian S-G, Sousa LMO (2017) A new quality factor for the building stone industry: a case of study of stone blocks, slabs, and tiles. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:533–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1040-5CrossRef

Title: Natural stone heterogeneities and discontinuities: an overview and proposal of a classification system
Authors: Maria Luísa Pereira
Amélia Dionísio
Madalena Barata Garcia
Luísa Bento
Pedro Amaral
Marco Ramos
Publication date: 01-04-2023
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Published in: Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment / Issue 4/2023
Print ISSN: 1435-9529
Electronic ISSN: 1435-9537
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03152-0

Springer Professional

Abstract

Please log in to get access to your license.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Other articles of this Issue 4/2023

Scale dependency and anisotropy of mechanical properties of jointed rock masses: insights from a numerical study

Seismic dynamics of revetment breakwater built on reclaimed coral sand foundation in the SCS: insight from 1 g shaking table tests

Quantifying the particle shape and surface roughness of sands

Analysis on mechanical behavior and progressive failure of deep-buried marble based on complete stress-strain curves

Experimental study on pressure stimulated current response characteristics during damage evolution of water-bearing coal samples

Determination of joint roughness coefficient using a cost-effective photogrammetry technique