1 General Introduction
1.1 Processes Concerning Women
1.2 Processes Concerning Men
1.3 The Current Research
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RQ 1: To what extent do people believe that processes concerning men versus women underlie gender differences in negotiation?
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RQ 2: Do women and men differ in their beliefs about the causes of gender differences in negotiation?
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RQ 3: Are people’s beliefs about the causes of gender differences in negotiation related to their perceived effectiveness of and willingness to support different diversity initiatives?
2 Study 1
2.1 Method
2.1.1 Overview of Design
2.1.2 Sample
2.1.3 Procedure
2.1.4 First Measure on People’s Beliefs about the Causes of Gender Differences
Specific process | Exemplary research on specific processes | Order in version A | Order in version B | Study 1: M (SD) | Study 3: M (SD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
… women have concerns that assertive behavior is regarded as inappropriate | Amanatullah and Morris (2010) | (1) | (2) | 3.43 (1.45) | 4.74 (1.55) |
… men want to be seen as a “real man” (but not as weak or a “wimp”) | Vandello and Bosson (2013) | (2) | (1) | 4.68 (1.52) | 5.20 (1.43) |
… women are being disadvantaged | Kulik and Olekalns (2012) | (3) | (4) | 3.35 (1.71) | 4.65 (1.65) |
… men try to win and to prove themselves | Kray and Haselhuhn (2012) | (4) | (3) | 5.01 (1.40) | 5.24 (1.33) |
… it is expected that women not act too demandingly | Bowles et al. (2007) | (5) | (6) | 3.60 (1.66) | 4.70 (1.70) |
… it is expected that men are successful at work | Berdahl et al. (2018) | (6) | (5) | 4.81 (1.55) | 5.17 (1.41) |
2.1.5 Second Measure on People’s Beliefs about the Causes of Gender Differences
2.1.6 Demographics
2.1.7 Negotiation Experience
2.1.8 Perceived Direction of Gender Difference
2.2 Results
2.2.1 First Measure
Comparison | Study 1 (N = 199) | Study 3 (N = 630) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
z | p | d | z | p | d | |||
Women: concerns | vs | Men: “real” man | − 7.68 | < .001 | 0.85 | − 5.50 | < .001 | 0.31 |
Women: concerns | vs | Men: prove themselves | − 9.89 | < .001 | 1.11 | − 5.55 | < .001 | 0.35 |
Women: concerns | vs | Men: work success | − 8.63 | < .001 | 0.92 | − 5.20 | < .001 | 0.29 |
Women: disadvantaged | vs | Men: “real” man | − 7.60 | < .001 | 0.83 | − 6.66 | < .001 | 0.36 |
Women: disadvantaged | vs | Men: prove themselves | − 9.81 | < .001 | 1.06 | − 6.70 | < .001 | 0.39 |
Women: disadvantaged | vs | Men: work success | − 8.55 | < .001 | 0.90 | − 6.35 | < .001 | 0.34 |
Women: not demanding | vs | Men: “real” man | − 6.62 | < .001 | 0.68 | − 5.42 | < .001 | 0.32 |
Women: not demanding | vs | Men: prove themselves | − 8.83 | < .001 | 0.92 | − 5.47 | < .001 | 0.35 |
Women: not demanding | vs | Men: work success | − 7.57 | < .001 | 0.75 | − 5.11 | < .001 | 0.30 |
Average | 0.89 | 0.33 |
2.2.2 Second Measure
2.3 Discussion
3 Study 2
3.1 Method
3.1.1 Sample
3.1.2 Procedure
3.1.3 Further Measures
3.1.4 Coding
3.2 Results
Themes related to women | Themes related to men |
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(k = 52) | (k = 30) |
Attributes and behaviors | |
cooperativeness (socialized or gender role; 8); emotional (6); empathy (6); gender roles (6); restraint (socialized; 6); backlash (4); fear of backlash (4); lack of confidence (3); language (3); accommodating (2); compromising (2); lack of assertiveness (2); not being taken seriously (2); self-fulfilling prophecy (2); underestimation of own skills (2); act “manly”; agreeableness; caring (socialized); demeanor; emotional intelligence; feminine charm; guilt; humility; intimidated; motherliness; multitasking; lack of aggressiveness (socialized); not thought to be ambitious; passive; politeness (socialized); prejudice; proscribed to self-promote; scrutinized; seen as less dominant; seen as weaker sex; sensitive; socialization; softness; submissiveness | assertiveness (socialized, gender role, or evolutionary/biological; 8); dominance (socialized, gender role, or evolutionary/biological; 8); (over)confidence (6); aggressiveness (socialized; 5); rational (4); competitiveness (socialized or gender role; 3); gender roles (3); persistence (3); toughness (socialized; 2); prejudiced (2); selfishness (2); aim to win; being taken seriously; chivalry; comfortable to sentence someone; demanding; downplaying incidents; emotional stability; intimidated; ought to be successful; power; resilience; risk-taking |
(k = 39) | (k = 23) |
Physical characteristics and evolutionary aspects | |
pregnancy/motherhood (5); evolution/biology (2); appearance; attractiveness; physical weakness; prosocial (evolutionary) | physical strength (3); attracting mates; evolution/biology; intrasexual competition |
(k = 6) | (k = 4) |
Structural issues | |
disadvantaged (4); caregiving; low chances of being promoted; lower social status; part-time work; represented in leadership positions; underpaid | breadwinner (2); higher social status; men as leaders |
(k = 7) | (k = 3) |
3.3 Discussion
4 Study 3
4.1 Method
4.1.1 Sample
4.1.2 Procedure
Diversity initiative | Effectiveness M (SD) | Support M (SD) |
---|---|---|
Offer a negotiation training for women. This training focuses on the goals that women have in negotiations and on women’s expectations about how other people might perceive and evaluate them in negotiations (e.g., as “too demanding” if they negotiate forcefully). In addition, this training focuses on strategies for dealing with these concerns (e.g., how women can make requests without appearing as “overly demanding”) | 4.79 (1.64) | 4.56 (1.78) |
Offer a negotiation training for men. This training focuses on the goals that men have in negotiations and on men’s expectations about how other people might perceive and evaluate them in negotiations (e.g., as “not masculine enough” if they do not negotiate forcefully). In addition, this training focuses on strategies for dealing with these concerns (e.g., how men can present themselves as “masculine” outside of negotiations) | 3.67 (1.67) | 3.61 (1.75) |
Offer a negotiation training for Human Resource managers (that is, for people who negotiate salaries with employees). This training focuses on societal beliefs (stereotypes) about women. These beliefs are covered because they might influence Human Resource managers’ reactions to women’s behavior | 4.66 (1.56) | 4.47 (1.76) |
Offer a negotiation training for Human Resource managers (that is, for people who negotiate salaries with employees). This training focuses on societal beliefs (stereotypes) about men. These beliefs are covered because they might influence Human Resource managers’ reactions to men’s behavior | 4.23 (1.59) | 4.04 (1.77) |
Offer a training to change an overly “feminine acquiescence culture” that may be common in organizations. This culture is characterized, for example, by the expectation that especially women avoid showing dominating behavior | 4.04 (1.67) | 4.02 (1.80) |
Offer a training to change an overly “masculine contest culture” that may be common in organizations. This culture is characterized, for example, by the expectation that especially men show dominating behavior | 4.10 (1.72) | 3.90 (1.81) |
Make salary ranges public so that job holders can compare their own salary with those of other people in similar positions | 5.82 (1.53) | 5.65 (1.65) |
4.1.3 Further Measures
4.2 Results
4.2.1 Hypothesis 1
4.2.2 Hypotheses 2a and 2b
4.2.3 Hypotheses 3a, 3b, 4a, and 4b
Diversity initiative | Specific process | |||||
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Women: concerns | Women: disadvantaged | Women: not demanding | Men: “real” man | Men: prove themselves | Men: work success | |
Perceived effectiveness | ||||||
Training: women | 0.18*** | 0.08* | 0.16*** | 0.12** | 0.10* | 0.15*** |
HR managers: women | 0.12** | 0.24*** | 0.27*** | 0.08* | 0.08* | 0.10* |
Feminine culture | 0.23*** | 0.21*** | 0.29*** | 0.16*** | 0.10* | 0.10* |
Training: men | – 0.01 | – 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.14*** | 0.15*** | 0.12** |
HR managers: men | 0.02 | 0.13** | 0.08* | 0.11** | 0.11** | 0.16*** |
Masculine culture | 0.19*** | 0.32*** | 0.25*** | 0.21*** | 0.11** | 0.12** |
Salary ranges | 0.11** | 0.24*** | 0.15*** | – 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
Willingness to support | ||||||
Training: women | 0.17*** | 0.14*** | 0.25*** | 0.19*** | 0.14*** | 0.21*** |
HR managers: women | 0.14*** | 0.30*** | 0.29*** | 0.20*** | 0.14** | 0.18*** |
Feminine culture | 0.22*** | 0.24*** | 0.31*** | 0.23*** | 0.13** | 0.16*** |
Training: men | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.08* | 0.22*** | 0.18*** | 0.17*** |
HR managers: men | 0.04 | 0.15*** | 0.16*** | 0.20*** | 0.16*** | 0.18*** |
Masculine culture | 0.15*** | 0.30*** | 0.23*** | 0.23*** | 0.17*** | 0.15*** |
Salary ranges | 0.09* | 0.28*** | 0.20*** | 0.03 | – 0.00 | 0.08 |