As motivation is important for academic success and study progress (Richardson et al.
2012; Vallerand et al.
1997), motivation needs to be stimulated in students. PBL is an instructional method that aims to foster intrinsic motivation (Barrows
1986; Hmelo-Silver
2004; Norman and Schmidt
1992). Hence, the present study investigated the relation between PBL and Dutch law students’ motivation using a mixed-methods design. SDT was used as a theoretical framework to investigate the claim that PBL can indeed foster students’ intrinsic or, in SDT-terms, autonomous motivation. Study 1 involved a comparison between students of a PBL cohort with students of a lecture-based cohort (i.e. non-PBL) in terms of their perceived feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness in the learning environment and their autonomous and controlled motivation. Perceptions of students’ need satisfaction were included because these needs are important for the experience of motivation (see Deci and Ryan
2000). Results showed no differences in feelings of autonomy and competence, but PBL students experienced more relatedness in their learning environment. Further, no differences were found for both types of motivation. In Study 2, qualitative data concerning the role of PBL for motivation and need satisfaction (i.e. autonomy, competence and relatedness) were collected with focus-group discussions to follow up the results of Study 1.
Autonomy, competence and relatedness
SDT states that, when the social context of a learning environment satisfies the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, students become autonomously motivated (Ryan and Deci
2000). Previous studies investigating differences between PBL and non-PBL students’ motivation did not include students’ perceptions of this need satisfaction. Examining need satisfaction might be insightful because these needs are important antecedents of motivation (Ryan and Deci
2000). It was expected that feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness would be stimulated more in PBL than in a traditional, lecture-based curriculum. Yet, results were not completely in line with these expectations.
With regard to autonomy, no differences were found between PBL and non-PBL students. In the focus-group discussions, it appeared that there were a number of autonomy-supportive elements present in PBL (e.g. some choice in literature), but also there were controlling elements (e.g. lack of choice in tutorial group composition). One can assume that, in the non-PBL environment also, both autonomy-supportive (e.g. choice in fellow students for collaborative assignments) and controlling elements (e.g. prescribed literature) were present. The presence of controlling elements in PBL and probable autonomy-supportive elements in a non-PBL environment could help to explain why no differences emerged for perceived autonomy.
When asked directly during the focus-group discussions, students indicated low degrees of autonomy and high feelings of control. The main contributing factor to this feeling was mandatory attendance at tutorial meetings. However, one could argue that mandatory attendance does not refer to an autonomy-supportive or controlling element, but more to a
structural element in PBL. Providing structure holds that students are offered clear instructions of what is expected of them (Jang et al.
2010), such as instructions about presence. In general, providing structure is beneficial for educational results relative to no structure in class (Jang et al.
2010). Yet structure can be offered in an autonomous-supportive way (i.e. discussing rationale, taking students’ feelings into account), which is beneficial for students, or in a controlled way (i.e. no discussion of rationale, not taking students’ feelings into account), which has a detrimental effect on students (Jang et al.
2010). It is possible that communication about mandatory attendance in the curriculum under study was perceived as controlling rather than autonomy supportive.
Moreover, although elements such as choice in literature sources and limited interferences of the tutor were intended to be autonomy supportive in nature, students were unsatisfied with these elements. It is possible that the amount of autonomy expected from students, with respect to literature selection for example, was too high, making students feel lost in the course material (Sierens et al.
2006). Kirschner et al. (
2006) described this in terms of minimal guidance which, according to them, is harmful for learning. In PBL, the amount of instructions should be adapted to the level of the student (i.e. scaffolding; Schmidt et al.
2007). For example, novice students (e.g. first-year students) are provided more help in literature searches (e.g. more tips) compared to experienced students (e.g. third-year students), because novice students lack experience (Schmidt et al.
2007). Possibly, in the curriculum under study, students (even in their third year) experienced difficulties with respect to their responsibility for literature choices, resulting in feelings of uncertainty.
Considering the need for competence, students indicated that the phases of PBL help them in experiencing feelings of competence. PBL offers opportunities to rehearse course material, which make students feel confident about the learned material. Moreover, the discussion during the reporting phase helps students to create a rich understanding of the course material. Students indicated that the use of realistic problems also contributed to feelings of competence, which is in line with the study by Dunlap (
2005). Real-life problems support a connection between theory and practice, leading to a better understanding about the material. Yet, non-PBL students also reported feelings of high competence in the learning environment. A first explanation is that some courses in the non-PBL curriculum also offered work groups in which students worked on a realistic law case, contributing to feelings of competence in non-PBL students as well. Second, non-specific PBL factors that contribute to feelings of competence, such as obtaining good grades, are common in both instruction types, explaining why no difference in competence showed up. Finally, students of both cohorts were third-year students and probably all experienced feelings of competence, because they all succeeded so far in their academic careers.
The only difference between PBL and non-PBL students was in feelings of relatedness. Specifically, PBL students reported feelings of higher relatedness compared with non-PBL students. Analysis of focus-group discussions demonstrated that this feeling can be explained by the opportunity to form peer connections in tutorial meetings. In PBL, students meet twice a week in a small (i.e. 10–12 students) tutorial group and the groups change each course. In PBL, students therefore get to know a large number of fellow students in this way. Alternatively, it is likely that large-scale, lecture-based curricula (i.e. traditional) create a sense of anonymity among students and are more impersonal. The teacher is less involved and more distant than in PBL.
Correlations between relatedness and autonomous and controlled motivation were nonsignificant. This finding was not in line with results of previous studies (e.g. Sheldon and Filak
2008) in which positive relations between feelings of relatedness and intrinsic motivation were demonstrated. Still, even though there is no relation with motivation, feelings of high relatedness are beneficial for other student outcomes such as student dropout. Tinto’s (
1975) model stresses the interaction between students and the academic environment and its influence on student dropout. If students are socially integrated in the academic environment, commitment increases, making it less likely that students voluntarily drop out of college (Tinto
1975). Social integration is the result of connections with peers and interactions with staff. Results of our study suggest that social integration is present in PBL more than in a non-PBL environment. Students feel related through small-scale tutorial groups in PBL, because they get to know one another in both a formal (i.e. collaborate on study activities) and informal (i.e. friendship) way. In addition, interaction with tutors in the groups contributes to social integration. This result is in line with findings of a study by Meeuwisse et al. (
2010) which indicate that an active learning environment (i.e. such as PBL) fosters interactions with both teachers and students.
Autonomous and controlled motivation
It was anticipated that PBL students would report higher scores for autonomous motivation. However, Study 1 revealed no differences for autonomous and controlled motivation between the two student cohorts. But PBL and non-PBL students reported rather high autonomous motivation scores (M = 3.82 and M = 3.85, respectively, range 1–5). These results indicate that the claim that PBL can stimulate students’ intrinsic motivation was not supported by our results. A first explanation has to do with the findings for the three psychological needs. No differences between PBL students and their non-PBL counterparts were found for perceived autonomy and competence. Correlations reflected a positive relation between perceived autonomy and competence with autonomous motivation, and a negative relation between perceived autonomy and competence with controlled motivation. Because scores on perceived feelings of autonomy and competence did not differ, it is not surprising that no differences were found for autonomous and controlled motivation.
Another possible explanation for why there were no differences between PBL and non-PBL students for autonomous motivation is that participation in our studies by third-year Bachelor’s students took place at the end of the academic year. Apparently, all participants were enthusiastic about their study and were motivated to finish the Bachelor’s program. In general, students who are autonomously motivated continue the academic program, while controlled motivated (or demotivated) students drop out at an earlier stage (e.g. Vansteenkiste et al.
2005; Vallerand et al.
1997). Nevertheless, third-year law students were chosen because these they had more experience with the academic program and curriculum (relative to first-year students), making their opinions rather valuable for the focus-group discussions. Nevertheless, we anticipated that similar effects would have been found if first-year students were questioned. Results are in line with a study that was conducted with predominantly first- and second-year students of a PBL psychology program (Wijnia et al.
2011). In that study, similar to our results, no differences were found between PBL and lecture-based students for autonomous and controlled motivation. Therefore, we assume that the results can more likely be explained by the fact that no differences were found for the perceived needs of autonomy and competence.
Limitations, recommendations for future research and implications
The present study had some limitations. A first limitation is the participation of third-year students. It is likely that third-year students would be more motivated and confident about their study than first-year and second-year students, because they almost had finished the Bachelor’s program. However, third-year students also were more experienced with the PBL program and therefore their opinions were valuable for the focus-group discussions. Second, non-PBL students filled out the questionnaire during a non-mandatory lecture, while the PBL students filled out the questionnaires during a mandatory meeting. It is likely that the students who were present during the lecture were highly motivated, which could have biased our results. Nevertheless, results are in line with previous studies conducted in existing PBL curricula (e.g. Galand et al.
2010). Further, administration of the questionnaires took place during different courses in both student groups because of changes in course order. Even though students were instructed to base their answers on the entire Bachelors’ program, it cannot be ruled out that the content of the course had some sort of influence on the answers. Finally, with regards to the focus-group discussions, recording of one of the discussions failed. Even though the interviewer directly wrote down the content of the discussion, exact statements were missing for this group.
Partly based on these limitations, we have some recommendations for further research. Although the main focus of the present study was the influence of PBL on student motivation, it would be interesting to conduct focus groups among non-PBL students as well. At this point, we can only make assumptions about which factors influence student motivation under traditional instruction. Further, the present study indicated that there was no correlation between perceived relatedness and either autonomous motivation or with controlled motivation. Further research is needed into why this relation is absent. Moreover, it might be valuable to connect dropout to motivation, especially feelings towards relatedness. Relatedness, which appeared higher among PBL students, might influence student dropout according to Tinto’s model.
In this study, we used SDT as the theoretical framework. We realise that other motivational theories might be of interest as well, such as achievement goal theory or expectancy-value theory. However, in the current study, we were mainly interested in investigating whether PBL can indeed stimulate higher levels of intrinsic or autonomous motivation.
Both the quantitative and qualitative studies were conducted with Dutch law students, because potentially they could benefit most from improvements in motivation (with regard to low graduation rates and high dropout rates among Dutch law students) (Central Bureau for Statistics
2014). However, results are also insightful for other higher educational programs: student-centred instructional methods, based on constructivist learning theories, have received much attention over the past decades (Baeten et al.
2013) and these methods replace conventional lecture-based programs more and more in several disciplines (White et al.
2016). Because PBL can be considered an active and constructivist learning approach, findings of the present study for an activating learning approach and motivation are therefore important for other programs and disciplines as well.