Nanoparticles: An Emerging Technology for Oil Production and Processing Applications

Nanoparticles have emerged enormously as an attractive candidate for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) at laboratory and field scales. Nanoparticles have novel physical properties distinct from both molecular and solid-state matter due to their significant fraction of surface atoms. Study of these physical properties provides a unique way to learn how nanoparticles can be prepared and characterized. Knowledge of application of nanoparticles in different industrial settings dictates nanoparticles preparation techniques and characterization. Appropriate preparation techniques can lead to the formation of diverse types of nanoparticles which are applicable in energy and the environment. In this chapter, different techniques of nanoparticle preparation, categorized as chemical (bottom-up) and physical (top-down) along with their characterization techniques when necessary, have been discussed. The chapter also addressed the stability and control over nanoparticle size. Nanoparticle preparation applications/challenges have also been briefly introduced. The industrial settings and challenges associated with the urgent advancements of nanotechnology have also been reviewed, and novel pathways to optimize the preparation techniques considering the application of nanomaterials have been briefly discussed.

The application of nanoparticles to enhanced oil recovery (EOR) especially at a laboratory scale has become a commonplace method. Given their small sizes, nanoparticles can easily disperse in the porous media and mix more easily with the reservoir fluids unlike conventional chemicals such as polymers and/or surfactants. The larger size of the chemicals increases their adsorption capability on the rock surfaces which results in an undesirable effect on their performance efficiencies and application. Nanoparticles during EOR processes can be used as nanofluids, nano-emulsions, nanoadsorbents or nanocatalysts. Nonetheless, in each recovery process, numerous mechanisms occur that can enormously reduce the trapped oil, which can extend the well productivity. Extensive research has been reported on the use of nanoparticles in EOR ranging from simple imbibition tests and core flood experiments to pilot plant applications. In this chapter, we reviewed some of the common types of nanoparticles evidenced for EOR application. We then addressed some of the stabilization techniques of the nanofluids before their dispersion as secondary and/or tertiary agents in hydrocarbon reservoirs and hence improve or enhance oil recovery. Lastly, we provide an overview of the operating parameters, mechanisms that govern nanoparticle performance during oil recovery, and an overview of the current environmental and economic concerns of using nanoparticles for improving oil recovery.

With the increasing worldwide energy requirement, the consumption of conventional oil is increasing, and it will increase as the extracted oil will still be the main fount of non-renewable energy. Therefore, the search for new alternative economic technologies for upgrading and recovery of conventional and unconventional oils has been the paramount importance lately. However, the presence of heavy polar hydrocarbons, such as asphaltenes, in the oil is one of the major problems during the production and processing of heavy oils because of asphaltene complexity and a non-specific chemical structure which is causing formation damage and precipitation/deposition of asphaltenes in the rock and the production equipment. Therefore, in recent years, nanotechnology, in terms of nanoparticles, can be introduced in the oil industry via asphaltene adsorption since nanoparticles would remove asphaltenes from the heavy oil making the remaining oil fraction transportable for current processing. Also, nanoparticles could act as catalysts for upgrading asphaltenes into light distillates. Thus, the major aim of this chapter is to give a review of asphaltene adsorption over the surface of nanoparticles. Also, this chapter discusses the effect of different variables on the asphaltene behavior such as temperature, types and properties of nanoparticles, the source of asphaltenes and their properties, heptane/toluene (H/T) ratio, pressure effect, coexisting molecules, and water amount. Moreover, the chapter provides insights on the advantages of the usage of nanoparticles in the heavy oil industry and presents a few of the restrictions and challenges with the use of this new technology. The solid-liquid equilibrium (SLE) model is introduced to depict the adsorption and aggregation of asphaltenes. Furthermore, nanoparticles may be used as inhibitors for avoiding or delaying asphaltene precipitation and, therefore, to improve oil recovery.

Oil, either conventional or unconventional, will continue to be the main source of future nonrenewable energy. The high energy demand worldwide is causing a decline in the conventional crude oil reserves, and thus, new alternative and cost-effective technologies for upgrading and recovery of conventional and unconventional oils are needed to sustain industrial activities. Unfortunately, the presence of high asphaltene content in heavy and extra-heavy crude oils can cause many issues such as high viscosity and low specific gravity that hinder processing, production, and transportation. This chapter presents the use of nanoparticle technology as an emerging potential alternative for enhancing heavy oil upgrading and recovery. Because of their unique properties, nanoparticles have considerable potential applications as adsorbents and catalysts in the heavy oil industry, for both surface and subsurface applications. In subsurface applications, the use of nanoparticles may enhance the upgrading and recovery of heavy oil by significantly increasing its H/C atomic ratio and reducing both viscosity and coke formation. Nanoparticles are also employed as adsorbent/catalysts for separating asphaltenes followed by their catalytic decomposition.

This study provides mechanistic insights into the effect of pressure on n-C₇ asphaltene thermo-oxidation and thermocatalytic oxidation assisted by AuPd/Ce_0.62Zr_0.38O₂ nanocatalysts as well as the thermodynamic compensation effect using pressures between 0.084 MPa and 7.0 MPa. This study is essentially divided into four parts, including (i) the impact of pressure on the oxidation of asphaltenes extracted from a single source; (ii) the effect of the chemical nature of asphaltenes on its thermo-oxidation at different pressures, using six different asphaltenes; (iii) the effect of different nanocatalysts in the decomposition of asphaltenes; and (iv) the thermodynamic compensation effect. Kinetic analysis was done based on high-pressure thermogravimetric results, conducted under an air atmosphere at temperatures from 100°C to 800°C. The temperature was divided into four main intervals, according to the mass change and rate for mass change profiles. The atypical behavior of asphaltenes limits each region during oxidation processes. The thermal events are named oxygen chemisorption region (OC), decomposition of chemisorbed oxygen region (DCO), first (FC), and second combustion (SC). Kinetic parameters were estimated through a first-order kinetic model for the different thermal regions. The results show the importance of the pressure on the oxidation of asphaltenes, according to the OC and DCO phenomena, in which there was no evidence at low-pressure conditions. Many variables influence the oxidation of asphaltenes. The content of thioethers, carboxyl and carbonyl groups, degree of aromatization, degree of dealkylation, cluster size, and content of long and short size aliphatic chains stand out. On the other hand, nanocatalysts’ presence considerably reduces the decomposition temperature of asphaltenes, obtaining values below 200°C, never before obtained. These reductions are possible in systems evaluated at 6.0 MPa and 3.0 MPa, indicating the beneficial effect of pressure on the performance and catalytic activity of the nanocatalyst. Finally, this work also shows insights about the kinetic compensation effect of the reactions throughout the conversion of asphaltenes with and without multifunctional nanocatalysts at different pressures.

Several in situ recovery methods have been developed to extract heavy oil and bitumen from deep reservoirs. Once produced, bitumen is transferred to upgraders that convert low-quality oil to synthetic crude oil. However, the heavy oil and bitumen exploitation process is not just high-energy and water-intensive but also has a significant environmental footprint as it produces large amounts of gaseous emissions and wastewater. In addition, the level of contaminants in bitumen requires special equipment. Therefore, nanotechnology has emerged as an alternative technology for in situ heavy oil upgrading and recovery enhancement. Nanoparticle catalysts are an important example of nanotechnology applications. Nanocatalysts portray unique catalytic and sorption properties due to their exceptionally high surface area-to-volume ratio and active surface sites. In situ catalytic conversion or upgrading of heavy oil with the aid of multimetallic nanocatalysts is a promising cost-effective and environmentally friendly technology for production of high-quality oils that meet pipeline and refinery specifications. Further, nanoparticles could be employed as inhibitors for preventing or delaying asphaltene precipitation and coke formation and subsequently enhance oil recovery. Nevertheless, as with any new technologies, there are a number of challenges facing the employment of nanoparticles for in situ catalytic upgrading and recovery enhancement. The main goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of nanoparticle technology usage, such as ultradispersed nanomaterials, for enhancing the in situ catalytic upgrading and recovery processes of crude oil. Furthermore, the chapter sheds lights on the advantages of the employment of nanoparticles in the heavy oil industry and addresses some of the limitations and challenges facing this new technology.

There are currently extensive studies that have evidenced the capability of nanoparticles in stabilizing foam via irreversible adsorption at the gas/liquid interface. Nanoparticle adsorption enhances both the dilatational viscoelasticity and interfacial properties of foam liquid films, retards film thinning and bubble coalescence, and decreases the Ostwald ripening. Many studies have investigated the potential of several types of nanoparticles including silica, metal oxides, graphene, and fly ash nanoparticles and the synergistic effect between surfactants and nanoparticles for foam stabilization. The selection of the appropriate surface wettability and the optimum nanoparticle concentration remains the most crucial criteria. Literature results suggested that hydrophilic nanoparticles (contact angle between 40° and 70°) can maximize the detachment energy of nanoparticles at the gas/liquid interface and contribute to maximum static and dynamic foam stability. Therefore, in this chapter, we review the fundamentals of foam stability, the mechanisms of foam stabilization by nanoparticles, and the major factors influencing nanoparticle-stabilized foam including nanoparticle surface wettability and surface hydrophilicity modification. Moreover, the remarkable foam studies discussed in this chapter provide evidence on the role of nanoparticles in enhancing the static and dynamic foam stability and recovering residual oil in porous media during gas enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Hence, nanoparticle-stabilized foam can be an alternative solution for the drawbacks of gas EOR.

Insufficient foam stability hinders the applications of the foam injection technique for enhanced oil recovery. To date, to improve foam stability, nanoparticles have been synergistically used with surfactants. Thus, evaluating the interactions between nanoparticles and surfactants is essential to understand and improve foam stability. In a surfactant solution involving nanoparticle dispersions, nanoparticles and ionic surfactants possess net surface charges that lead to electrostatic interaction-induced adsorption of surfactant molecules on nanoparticles. The adsorption of surfactants on nanoparticles changes their surface wettability, leading to their migration to the bubble-fluid interface formed by the foam. In this work, silica nanoparticles with different surface characteristics were used in conjunction with alpha olefin sulfonate as a surfactant to stabilize natural gas foams. The incorporation of nanoparticles to natural gas foams improved surfactant performance by 70%. Besides, nanoparticle-surfactant interactions were analyzed through adsorption experiments to provide insights into the effects of nanomaterials on the stability of natural gas foams. The adsorption of the surfactant is higher on silica nanoparticles that exhibit the lowest acidic surface and surface charge in comparison with the evaluated nanomaterials, which substantially affect electrostatic interaction-driven surfactant adsorption on the nanoparticles. The foam stability tests showed that the surfactant/nanoparticle ratio is critical to improving foam stability for each nanomaterial, because high surfactant adsorption can decrease the foam stability. For materials with higher adsorption affinity, to obtain highly stable foams, the amount of nanoparticles was reduced by 50% compared with the materials with lower adsorption affinity. The optimal surfactant/nanoparticle ratio with the lowest nanoparticle amount, which led to the most stable foam obtained, was evaluated at reservoir conditions in a natural gas core flooding test. The results showed an 18% increase in oil recovery in the presence of surfactant solutions with nanoparticles, indicating mitigation of gas injection drawbacks due to the blockage of preferential channels.

Recently, the application of nanoparticles in the oil and gas activities has become apparent as demonstrated by various researchers. The pursuit to create new revolutionary advances that can tackle the existing problems confronting the oil industry has triggered this tremendous growth. Numerous types of nanoparticles, of various forms, concentrations, and sizes, have been utilized in several studies. This chapter aims to highlight the use of nanomaterials in drilling activities, oil well cementing, hydraulic fracturing, and/or well stimulation fluids. Drilling fluids are normally required to carry drilled cuttings to the surface from the wellbore. Cementing involves adding a mixture of particular components to water to form a slurry using properly designed materials to improve the wellbore stability before oil production. In hydraulic fracturing, fracking fluids are required to transport the proppants to the reservoir fractured zones. Additionally, they provide other purposes as well as ensuring an effective fracturing process. A coherent attempt by investigators to improve the performance of these fluids at different stages of their operation has encouraged the venture into nanotechnology. Nanoparticles are usually costly; consequently, it will be valuable to apply lower concentration in these activities while still attaining a satisfactory level of the anticipated performance. A review of nanoparticles used in the aforementioned processes is comprehensively presented in this chapter, as well as the related challenges, which will be significant to future researchers and applications. Furthermore, this chapter intends to evaluate the results of current findings and developments that were noticed by using various nanoparticles in improving the performance of these fluids. Moreover, this chapter offers researchers and/or the oil industry with an exhaustive synopsis and assessment of the current improvements of applying nanoparticles in these reviewed segments.

One of the main damage mechanisms identified in the Ocelote field is the drilling-induced formation damage during drilling operations. The productivity of a well during its production life decreases because of fines migration and changes in the wettability due to organic deposits. In this study, we designed a double purpose nanofluid to reduce the drilling-induced formation damage while the invaded mud filtrate enhances the mobility of the crude oil and migration fines control. The nanoparticles (NPs) used were fumed silica and commercial alumina. The effectiveness of the nanoparticles in improving the rheological and filtration properties of the drilling fluid was assessed by conducting rheological and filtration tests under high pressure–high temperature (HPHT) conditions in terms of the NP concentration after the hot rolling process. The experimental results in terms of the plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strength showed that as the NP concentration increases, the values of the rheological parameters increase, with the Si NPs exhibiting the best performance. Regarding the filtration properties, the Si and Al NPs reduced the filtration volume by 17%, with the Si nanoparticles presenting the highest reduction in the mudcake thickness of 6%. At NP concentrations above 0.3 wt.%, the filtration reduction effect decreases. Therefore, the mud filtrate obtained from the HPHT filtration test conducted on a drilling fluid with an NP concentration of 0.05 wt.% was used to evaluate the mud filtrate quality to improve the mobility of the crude oil by interfacial tension (IFT) reduction and the capacity to alter the oil-wet to water-wet surface. The retention of the fine particles in impregnated Ottawa sand was tested through a break–rupture curve. The results showed that the mud filtrate with Al NPs could decrease the IFT between the intermediate heavy crude (23°API) and the mud filtrate by more than 24% and could alter the contact angle from approximately 66 to 41 °C. Additionally, the core treated with the mud filtrate with Al NPs imbibed twice the mass in 2 h, more than the core treated with the mud filtrate in the absence of NPs. Hence, the Si NPs did not present significant changes in the IFT and wettability alteration but increased the retention of the fine particles in the treated sand. The Al NPs helped reduce the filtration volume, presented a marked impact on the wettability alteration to preferential water-wet, reduced the IFT, and to some extent aided fines migration control; therefore, the Al NPs were selected for the evaluation in displacement tests on rock samples under dynamic and reservoir conditions. Additionally, the drilling fluid with the Al NPs reduced the dynamic filtration volume by 45% with a subsequent reduction in the formation damage by 20% and increase in the critical flow of migratory clays by 66% in comparison with the drilling fluid without NPs. Finally, the residual water saturation was reduced, and the crossover point between the relative permeability curves shifted to the right. Finally, technical studies for field applications will be carried out, where two twin wells with similar properties will be drilled, allowing for a comparative analysis of the application of NPs to drilling fluids with the same formulation in terms of the invasion diameter, well stabilization time, productivity index, and solid production.

Formation damage caused by the precipitation and deposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) inorganic scales in the oil field leads to a significant reduction in oil production. Therefore, the main objective of this work is to evaluate a homemade nanofluid to inhibit/remediate the formation damage due to CaCO₃ precipitation/deposition at high pH conditions under static and dynamic tests and its further application in a Colombian field. The history of the field case study showed after Alkaline-surfactant-polymer flooding. Different chemical natures of the nanoparticles including SiO₂, TiO₂, CeO₂, MgO, Al₂O₃, and Ca-DTPMP were evaluated. The ability of the developed nanofluids for inhibiting the CaCO₃ scaling was assessed trough batch experiments at 54.4 °C and pH = 10 by measuring the changes in the concentration of calcium ion (Ca²⁺) in the solution for different concentration of the nanofluids. Results indicated that with a minimum inhibition concentration (CIM) of 50 mg∙L⁻¹ of Ca-DTPMP nanoparticles, an efficiency of 100% in the CaCO₃ scaling inhibition could be obtained. Additionally, a core displacement test was conducted at reservoir conditions, showing an inhibition and remediation efficiency of 100%. Hence, a field trial in a Colombian oilfield was designed to verify the efficiency of the nanofluid. It is worth to mention that the selected well had a total loss of productivity due to the CaCO₃ scaling that failed the pumps. The field test was successfully developed and led to an incremental in the oil productivity of 66 barrels of crude oil per day during the first year without the need of closing the well and leading to uninterrupted production. After 24 months of job tracking, crude oil production is still above the baseline.

Hydraulic fracturing (HF) is the most commonly used technique for extracting oil and gas from unconventional reservoirs. HF generates large volumes of wastewater with constituents typical of the fractured formations, such as radioactive isotopes as uranium. Although radioactive materials occur naturally in low concentrations, they represent high risks of toxicity because they are heavy metals that must be removed from the produced water up to safe levels. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to study the uranyl ion adsorption on activated carbons (AC) of different chemical nature, obtained from agro-industrial waste. Besides, the AC were functionalized with different heteroatoms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and phosphorus/nitrogen. The effect of the chemical nature, the adsorbate/adsorbent ratio, and the salinity on the adsorption process were evaluated, as well as protocols for reusing. The results advised that carbons with the highest value of the isoelectric point and narrow mesoporosity were most efficient in the adsorption of uranyl. The parameters of the BET model showed that the amount adsorbed decreases as the adsorbent/adsorbate ratio increases as a consequence of the reduction of available active sites. Uranyl removal results suggested a maximum adsorption capacity of 500 mg/g (removal of 100%) in 4 h, using a 5:1 adsorbent/adsorbate ratio and saline concentrations between 0% and 5% w/v. The sustainability of the materials has been demonstrated by showing the reusability for 30 cycles. AC materials have tremendous potential for efficient uranium decontamination in water used in hydraulic fracturing processes.

Nationally, oil sands operations generate an array of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) during the extraction, production, and transportation. During the extraction and production of bitumen, the OSPWs, whether it’s generated from surface mining or steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), are conventionally treated through several chemical and/or physical stages. For instance, the produced water generated from SAGD process is traditionally treated by primary, secondary, and tertiary or emerging (if needed) treatment technologies. During the chemical treatment, sequential treatment steps consisting of warm lime softening (WLS), walnut shell filter (WSF), and weak acid cationic exchanging (WAC) processes are applied to reduce the high levels of silica, total organic carbon (TOC), and total hardness, respectively. With surface mining processes, considerable quantities of stable fine tailings are progressively produced. These stable fine particles are classically flocculated and consolidated by freeze-thawing, centrifugation, consolidated tailings (CT), and paste technologies (i.e., polymeric flocculation). With respect to storage and transportation of the recovered oil, pipelines are a critical part of oil transportation, and there are issues to be concerned about crude oil spills. These oil spills without an effective removal method showed adverse impacts to ecosystems and the long-term effects of environmental pollution that calls for an urgent need to develop wide range materials for cleaning up oil from oil-impacted areas. Unfortunately, most of the current treatment technologies for OSPWs are either ineffective and environmentally unfriendly or require high initial and/or running costs. Thus, oil sands companies are eagerly focusing on the optimization of current technologies and use of combined physical and/or chemical processes to comply with reuse and discharge limits. In this regard, the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview about the main conventional treatment technologies applied in treating SAGD produced water, mature fine tailings (MFT), and oil spills. Our chapter critically discusses and widely demonstrates the conventional treatment technologies along with some emerging techniques that have been recently developed for treatment of OSPW from fundamentals to process optimization, materials applied, and eventually the parameters that affect the process efficiency based on the recent literature. Additionally, this chapter comprehensively describes tailoring designs of some eco-friendly nanoparticles developed by Nassar’s group at the University of Calgary to be effectively combined or integrated with the many physical and/or chemical processes utilized for remediation of OSPW.

The discovery of new hydrocarbons to meet the current energy demand has led to the venture into new technologies such as nanotechnology. Nanotechnology refers to the design and application of engineered or naturally occurring nanoparticles with at least one dimension in the order of 1–100 nm, at least in one dimension, for various applications. The distinctive properties of nanoparticles permit them to be used for various applications in the oil and gas field. The focus of this chapter is to tackle some of the current challenges limiting nanoparticle application for field application. Also, some concerns, such as environment impacts and uncertainties of using nanoparticles in oil and gas are explored. In this chapter, challenges such as nanoparticle sedimentation, nanoparticle aggregation/dispersion, scale-up cost, and health and environmental concerns are all reviewed.