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2019 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

3. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000

Author : Jennifer K. Lobasz

Published in: Constructing Human Trafficking

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter sets the stage for a genealogy of anti-trafficking politics in the United States. From 1998 to 2000, members of Congress, senior officials in the Clinton administration, and a wide range of highly active members of civil society attempted to craft a comprehensive federal response to human trafficking both within the United States and abroad. The chapter finds that trafficking and anti-trafficking were constructed in gendered and racialized terms. Trafficking—understood primarily as the international transportation of women and children for forced prostitution—was characterized as a uniquely deplorable abuse of human rights, and allusions to the historic trans-Atlantic slave trade underscored demands for the United States to take leadership of global efforts to eradicate the problem. The resultant Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 set the parameters for the anti-trafficking initiatives of not only the next two presidential administrations, but also for the host of countries pressured by the US government and transnational civil society to improve their standing in the TVPA-mandated annual Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report’s ranking of international anti-trafficking efforts.

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previous chapter Contemporary Approaches to Human Trafficking

next chapter “Especially Women and Children”

Subcommittee on International Operations and Human Rights of the Committee on International Relations, Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 106th Congress 1st session, September 14, 1999, 1.

Ibid., 35–36.

Statement of Gary A. Haugen, President and Chief Executive Office, International Justice Mission, ibid., 40.

See, e.g., Anthony M. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking: U.S. Policy Assessed (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 37.

Francis T. Miko, “Trafficking in Women and Children: The U.S. and International Response,” in Trafficking in Women and Children: Current Issues and Developments, ed. Anna M. Troubnikoff (New York: Nova Science, 2003). According to reporter Benjamin Skinner, then-First Lady Hillary Clinton encouraged her husband to address the issue after she was “deeply affected by meeting an HIV-positive sex slave during a 1994 trip to Thailand.” E. Benjamin Skinner, A Crime So Monstrous: Face-to-Face with Modern-Day Slavery (New York: Free Press, 2009), 51.

William J. Clinton, “Memorandum on Steps to Combat Violence against Women and Trafficking in Women and Girls,” Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 34, no. 11 (1998). Clinton also used the occasion to call on the Senate to ratify the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which has yet to occur.

Francis T. Miko, “Trafficking in Persons: The U.S. and International Response” (Washington, DC: CRS Report for Congress, 2006), 8. The “3 Ps” framework would soon come to dominate the formation of anti-trafficking policy at the global level.

Clinton.

H. Con. Res. 21 Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Thailand for the Purposes of Forced Prostitution, 104th Congress, 1st Session, February 1, 1995; S. Con. Res. 12 Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Thailand for the Purposes of Forced Prostitution, 104th Congress, 1st Session, May 4, 1995.

H. Con. Res. 239 Worldwide Trafficking of Persons, 105th Congress, 2nd Session, March 10, 1998; S. Con. Res. 82 Worldwide Trafficking of Persons, 105th Congress, 2nd Session, March 10, 1998.

S. 600 International Trafficking of Women and Children Victim Protection Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, March 11, 1999. Slaughter introduced an identical bill in the House, H.R. 1238, on March 23. H.R. 1238 International Trafficking of Women and Children Victim Protection Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, March 23, 1999.

H.R. 1356 Freedom from Sexual Trafficking Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, March 25, 1999. On the relationship between the Freedom from Sexual Trafficking Act and the International Religious Freedom Act, see Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 12; Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing God’s Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights (Rowman & Littlefield, 2004). @322

H.R. 3154 Comprehensive Anti-trafficking in Persons Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, October 27, 1999.

S. 1842 Comprehensive Anti-trafficking in Persons Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, November 2, 1999.

H.R. 3244 Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 1999, 106th Congress, 1st Session, November 8, 1999.

Jayashri Srikantiah, “Perfect Victims and Real Survivors: The Iconic Victim in Domestic Human Trafficking Law,” Boston University Law Review 87 (2007): 169.

Ibid.

Committee on International Relations, “Report to Accompany H.R. 3244” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 1999).

S. 2414 Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, 106th Congress, 2nd Session, April 12, 2000; S. 2449 International Trafficking Act of 2000, 106th Congress, 2nd Session, April 13, 2000.

“Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000). The TVPA faced only one dissenting vote in the House of Representatives, and was then unanimously approved in the Senate. For a more exhaustive account of legislative maneuvering surrounding the bill, see DeStefano; Hertzke; Skinner.

This is consistent with a broader trend identified by Aradau, who finds that “almost all definitions of trafficking include the element of ‘movement across borders.’” Claudia Aradau, Rethinking Trafficking in Women: Politics Out of Security (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 22. See also the discussion regarding “Trafficking as Migration” in Chapter 2 of this book.

H.R. 1356 Freedom from Sexual Trafficking Act of 1999. Emphasis added.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 9.

Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 106th Congress, 2nd session, February 22 and April 4, 2000, 22. Koh’s response notably reflects the Clinton Administration’s changing stance on how broadly to define trafficking. Even as it was restricted to cross-border movement, its targets were “people” rather than only “women and children.”

Ibid., 3. Arguing along the same lines, Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison (R-TX) remarked, “It is a sad consequence of globalization that crime has become more international in its scope and reach. These seedy sex industries know no boundaries.” Kay Bailey Hutchison, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report” (Washington, DC: U.S. Senate, 2000), S101217. See also International Labor Organization, “Forced Labor, Child Labor, and Human Trafficking in Europe: An Ilo Perspective” (paper presented at the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Geneva, September 18–22, 2002).

Paul Wellstone, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report” (Washington, DC: U.S. Senate, 2000), S10167.

Brownback, for example, castigated the “organized crime units and groups that are aggressively out making money off the trafficking of human flesh.” Sam Brownback, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report” (Washington, DC: U.S. Senate, 2000), S10166. See also Amy O’Neill Richard, “International Trafficking in Women to the United States: A Contemporary Manifestation of Slavery and Organized Crime,” in DCI Exceptional Intelligence Analyst Program (Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2000), 13.

Wellstone made a rare reference to domestic causes such as demand for cheap labor on the same day that the TVPA was passed by the Senate. Wellstone, S10167. See also Julia O’Connell Davidson and Bridget Anderson, “The Trouble with ‘Trafficking’,” in Trafficking and Women’s Rights, ed. Christien L. van der Anker and Jeroen Doomernik (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 19.

Kathleen Barry, Female Sexual Slavery (New York: New York University Press, 1979), 6–7.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 40.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 4.

See, e.g., Jacqueline Berman, “The Left, the Right, and the Prostitute: The Making of U.S. Anti-trafficking in Persons Policy,” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 14 (2005–2006); Elizabeth Bernstein, “The Sexual Politics of the ‘New Abolitionism’,” Differences 18, no. 3 (2007); Elizabeth Bumiller, “Evangelicals Sway White House on Human Rights Issues Abroad: Liberals Join Effort on Aids and Sex Trafficking,” The New York Times, pp. A1 (2003); Wendy Chapkis, “Trafficking, Migration, and the Law: Protecting Innocents, Punishing Immigrants,” Gender & Society 17, no. 6 (2003); Melissa Ditmore, “Trafficking in Lives: How Ideology Shapes Policy,” in Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, ed. Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005); Debbie Nathan, “Oversexed,” The Nation, August 29, 2005; Nina Shapiro, “The New Abolitionists,” Seattle Weekly, August 25, 2004; and Srikantiah.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 4.

United States V. Kozminski, 487 US 931 (1988). See also U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, “Statutes Enforced by the Criminal Section,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/statutes.php; Srikantiah, 173. I thank Ambassador Luis Cdebaca for stressing the significance of this ruling to me.

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 78.

In fact, “the TVPA does not specify movement across international boundaries as a condition of trafficking; it does not require the transportation of victims from one locale to another.” Government Accountability Office, “Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Anti-trafficking Efforts Abroad” (2006), 5.

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention.

Srikantiah, 171, n. 72. See, e.g., Brownback’s reference to “the sex trafficking bill.” Brownback, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report,” S10211. Brownback’s slip of tongue on the same day the Senate approved the TVPA is especially noteworthy given his leadership in reconciling competing versions of the bill. See also Jesse Helms, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report” (Washington, DC: U.S. Senate, 2000), S101212.

See DeStefano, 37.

President Clinton established PICW to coordinate implementation of U.S. obligations resulting from the 1995 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 73. Clinton’s 1998 directive on trafficking placed PICW in charge of federal policy on trafficking in women and children. Clinton.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 75.

Ibid., 76.

Sam Gejdenson, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000), H2684; See also Subcommittee on International Operations and Human Rights of the Committee on International Relations, H.R. 1356, the Freedom from Sexual Trafficking Act of 1999, Markup, 1st session, 106th Congress, August 4, 1999, 5.

Louise McIntosh Slaughter, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000).

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, 106–386, 106th Congress, October 28.

S. 600 International Trafficking of Women and Children Victim Protection Act of 1999, S2598; See also McKinney, Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 5.

See, e.g., Barry; Kathleen Barry, Charlotte Bunch, and Shirley Castley, eds., International Feminism: Networking against Female Sexual Slavery; Report of the Global Feminist Workshop to Organize against Traffic in Women (Rotterdam, the Netherlands: International Women’s Tribune Center, 1983).

In Feingold’s assessment ten years after the TVPA was passed, “For the United States, it has been both politically more expedient and emotionally more rewarding to focus on trafficking for sexual exploitation, rather than for labor exploitation. Under the influence of a politically well-connected ‘abolitionist’ lobby, prostitution has been conflated with trafficking; a crusade against the former is seen as synonymous with a victory against the latter.” David A. Feingold, “Trafficking in Numbers: The Social Construction of Human Trafficking Data,” in Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict, ed. Peter Andreas and Kelly M. Greenhill (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 62.

Denise Brennan, “Competing Claims of Victimhood? Foreign and Domestic Victims of Trafficking in the United States,” Sexuality Research and Social Policy 5, no. 4 (2008): 50.

George W. Bush, “Trafficking in Persons National Security Presidential Directive,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030225.html; See also Brennan, 50; Government Accountability Office, 23, fn. 22; Network of Sex Work Projects, “Taking the Pledge Curriculum,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.sexworkersproject.org/downloads/TakingThePledgeCurriculum.pdf; Jayne Huckerby, “United States of America,” in Collateral Damage: The Impact of Anti-trafficking Measures on Human Rights Around the World, ed. Mike Dottridge (Bangkok: Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, 2007). On a similar “gag rule” limiting the funding of anti-HIV/AIDS campaigns, see Joanna Busza, “Having the Rug Pulled from under Your Feet: One Project’s Experience of the U.S. Policy Reversal on Sex Work,” Health Policy and Planning 21, no. 4 (2006).

See, e.g., Huckerby.

Regarding the presence of sex workers and sex workers’ rights activists at the Vienna negotiations, see Melissa Ditmore and Marjan Wijers, “The Negotiations on the UN Protocol on Trafficking in Persons,” Nemesis 4 (2003); Jo Doezema, “Now You See Her, Now You Don’t: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiation,” Social & Legal Studies 14, no. 1 (2005).

See, e.g., Donna M. Hughes and Claire M. Roche, eds., Making the Harm Visible: Global Sexual Exploitation of Women and Girls (Kingston, RI: Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 1999).

See, e.g., Jo Bindman, “An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry,” in Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition, ed. Kamala Kempadoo and Jo Doezema (New York: Routledge, 1998), 64–66.

Huckerby, 242. See also Melissa Ditmore, “How Immigration Status Affects Sex Workers’ Health and Vulnerability to Abuse,” Research for Sex Work 5 (2002).

Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee, “Anti-trafficking Website of Durbar: Our Mission,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://antitrafficking-durbar.org/our_mission.html; See also William Finnegan, “The Countertraffickers: Rescuing the Victims of the Global Sex Trade,” The New Yorker, May 5, 2008.

Donna Hughes quoted in Kathryn Jean Lopez, “The New Abolitionist Movement: Donna Hughes on Progress Fighting Sex Trafficking,” accessed September 29, 2009, http://old.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/hughes200601260824.asp.

William J. Bennett and Charles W. Colson, “The Clintons Shrug at Sex Trafficking,” The Wall Street Journal, January 10, 2000.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 76.

S. 600 International Trafficking of Women and Children Victim Protection Act of 1999, S2598.

Ibid., S2598. See also John Conyers, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000), H2687; Abercrombie, H2686.

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 72.

Trafficking Victims Protection Act, 106–386, October 28, 2000.

Elaine Pearson, Human Rights and Trafficking in Persons: A Handbook (Bangkok: Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, 2000), 8. Feminist abolitionist Charlotte Bunch famously made this point in regards to women in “Women’s Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-vision of Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 12 (1990).

See, e.g. Ben Barber, “GOP’s World View Frames Changes in Foreign Policy,” The Washington Times, November 21, 1994; Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “Back to the Womb? Isolationism’s Renewed Threat,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 1995.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 11–13.

Christopher H. Smith, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000).

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 76.

Ibid.

Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 72. As I discuss in the latter part of this chapter, Brownback’s depiction of the iconic sex trafficking victim matches the experiences of only some of the persons identified as claiming to be survivors of sex trafficking.

Ibid., 76.

Joel Quirk, “Trafficked into Slavery,” Journal of Human Rights 6 (2007); See also John T. Picarelli, “Historical Approaches to the Trade in Human Beings,” in Human Trafficking, ed. Maggy Lee (Portland, OR: Willan Publishing, 2007).

Chapkis, 927.

Nora Demleitner, “The Law at a Crossroads: The Construction of Migrant Women Trafficked into Prostitution,” in Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives, ed. David Kyle and Rey Koslowski (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).

Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearing on Slavery Throughout the World, 106th Congress, 2nd Session, September 28, 2000, 22.

Brownback, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report,” S10166.

Ibid.

Wellstone, S10169. Virtually identical statements were made by members of both parties in the House. See Smith, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000,” H2683.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 22.

Galma Jahic and James O. Finckenauer, “Representations and Misrepresentations of Human Trafficking,” Trends in Organized Crime 8, no. 3 (2005); Jacqueline Berman, “(Un)Popular Strangers and Crises (Un)Bounded: Discourses of Sex-Trafficking, the European Political Community and the Panicked State of the Modern State,” European Journal of International Relations 9, no. 1 (2003); and Srikantiah, 187.

Jahic and Finckenauer, 26–27.

See Claudia Aradau, “The Perverse Politics of Four-Letter Words: Risk and Pity in the Securitization of Human Trafficking,” Millennium Journal of International Studies 33, no. 2 (2004).

My summary of the iconic narrative relies in particular on the story of “Lydia,” a composite character created by Laura Lederer to represent a typical victim of trafficking. “Lydia” is meant to be a sixteen-year-old girl from a Slavic country, drugged and kidnapped by strangers posing as modeling scouts. The story was retold several times, not only by Lederer, but also by members of Congress such as Smith. Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 37; Smith, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000,” H2683.

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention.

Hutchison, S10217.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 27.

I discuss sex workers’ rights advocacy in greater detail in the second and fourth chapters of this book.

See Ditmore and Wijers; Doezema.

See Busza.

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 19.

Ibid., 9.

Brownback, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report,” S10212.

Barbara Mikulski, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report” (Washington, DC: U.S. Senate, 2000), S10175.

Gejdenson, “Remarks on Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000,” H2684.

Laura María Agustín, Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labor Markets, and the Rescue Industry (London: Zed Books, 2007), 39.

Peter Landesman, “The Girls Next Door,” The New York Times, January 25, 2004. For a critical view of Landesman, and his response, see Jack Shafer et al., “Assessing Landesman,” Slate, accessed September 29, 2009, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/press_box/2004/01/assessing_landesman.html.

The most common recruitment strategies focus not on kidnapping or abduction, but on deceptive job advertisements, and promises of employment. See Louise I. Shelley, “Human Trafficking as a Form of Transnational Crime,” in Human Trafficking, ed. Maggy Lee (Portland, OR: Willan Publishing, 2007); Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 142–43.

100

Demleitner, 264.

101

Chapkis, 925; Quirk, 188. In the European Union, for example, Europol Deputy Director Willy Bruggeman distinguishes between exploited, deceived, and kidnapped sex trafficking victims, arguing that only kidnapped victims “are sex slaves in the truest sense.” Willy Bruggeman, “Illegal Immigration and Trafficking in Human Beings Seen as a Security Problem for Europe” (paper presented at the European Conference on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Brussels, 2002), 5.

102

Demleitner, 273.

103

Government Accountability Office, “Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad,” 15.

104

Julia O’Connell Davidson and Bridget Anderson, “The Trouble with ‘Trafficking’,” in Trafficking and Women’s Rights, ed. Christien L. van der Anker and Jeroen Doomernik (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).

105

Julie Mertus and Andrea Bertone, “Combating Trafficking: International Efforts and Their Ramifications,” in Human Trafficking and the Balkans, ed. H. Richard Friman and Simon Reich (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007), 51.

106

Bindman, “An International Perspective on Slavery in the Sex Industry,” 70; See also Ann D. Jordan, “Human Rights or Wrongs? The Struggle for a Rights-Based Response to Trafficking in Human Beings,” Gender & Development 10, no. 1 (2002): 20; Chapkis, 924; and Ratna Kapur, “Cross-Border Movements and the Law: Renegotiating the Boundaries of Difference,” in Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, ed. Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), 29.

107

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade.

108

Ibid. Emphasis added.

109

Ibid. Emphasis added.

110

See Berman, “The Left, the Right, and the Prostitute: The Making of U.S. Anti-trafficking in Persons Policy,” 278.

111

Jahic and Finckenauer. See, e.g., Hughes, who writes, “as a result of trafficking, Russian women are in prostitution in over 50 countries. In some parts of the world, such as Israel and Turkey, women from Russia and other republics of the former Soviet Union are so prevalent, that prostitutes are called ‘Natashas’.” Donna M. Hughes, “The ‘Natasha’ Trade: The Transnational Shadow Market of Trafficking in Women,” Journal of International Affairs 53, no. 2 (2000); See also Victor Malarek, The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2004).

112

Jahic and Finckenauer, 26.

113

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 27.

114

See Agustín; Jo Doezema and Kamala Kempadoo, eds., Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition (New York: Routledge, 1998); and Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik, eds., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005).

115

DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking, 5.

116

United States Department of Justice, “Department of Justice Issues T Visa to Protect Women, Children and All Victims of Human Trafficking” (Washington, DC, 2002).

117

Lamar Smith, “Appointment of Conferees on H.R. 3244, Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000), H7629.

118

Melvin Watt, “Appointment of Conferees on H.R. 3244, Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000” (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 2000), H7628.

119

Conyers, H2687.

120

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 92.

121

Janice G. Raymond and Donna M. Hughes, “Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States: International and Domestic Trends” (New York: Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 2001), 11; See Barry, 80. For the same argument.

122

The young Mexican women who testified in the House and Senate hearings had been trafficked by the Cadena family.

123

Raymond and Hughes, 37.

124

Wellstone, S10167; O’Neill Richard.

125

Helms, S10212.

126

Kamala Kempadoo, “From Moral Panic to Social Justice: Changing Perspectives on Trafficking,” in Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights, ed. Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), xvii.

127

Wellstone, S10168.

128

Hearing on Trafficking of Women and Children in the International Sex Trade, 19.

129

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 38.

130

Brownback, “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 Conference Report,” S10167.

131

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention, 4.

Ibid., 6–7.

Ibid., 56.

Helms, S10212.

Hutchison, S10217.

Hearings on International Trafficking in Women and Children: Prosecution, Testimonies, and Prevention.

137

Ibid.

138

Towns makes a similar argument at greater length regarding the function of international norms regarding women’s rights. Women and States: Norms and Hierarchies in International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

139

See Janie Chuang, “The United States as Global Sheriff: Using Unilateral Sanctions to Combat Human Trafficking,” Michigan Journal of International Law 27 (2005/2006); DeStefano, 34.

140

Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 16–17; Alison Brysk, “Beyond Framing and Shaming,” Journal of Human Security 5, no. 3 (2009); and Joshua William Busby, “Bono Made Jesse Helms Cry: Jubilee 2000, Debt Relief, and Moral Action in International Politics,” International Studies Quarterly 51, no. 2 (2007): 251.

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Title: The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000
Author: Jennifer K. Lobasz
Publisher: Springer International Publishing
Book: Constructing Human Trafficking
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-91736-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-91737-5

Copyright Year: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91737-5_3

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