Top

Small Business Economics

Published in:

24-10-2017

The “why” of international entrepreneurship: uncovering entrepreneurs’ personal values

Authors: Daniela Bolzani, Maw Der Foo

Published in: Small Business Economics | Issue 3/2018

Activate our intelligent search to find suitable subject content or patents.

search-config

AI-assisted search

Off

Abstract

Previous studies investigating the “why” of entrepreneurial internationalization have focused on firm-level motivations, overlooking the relationships between firm-level and individual-level motivations and why entrepreneurs differ in the goals they intend to achieve. We investigate the role of personal values as desirable end states that motivate international entrepreneurship by functioning as superordinate cognitive structures that underlie the practical internationalization goals set by entrepreneurs. By adopting an idiographic approach based on a laddering methodology in a sample of 140 new domestic technology-based firms located in Northern Italy, we uncover and map the hierarchies of goals that motivate entrepreneurs’ internationalization intentions, which are anchored in five personal values: achievement, power, self-direction, benevolence, and security. We discuss our theoretical and methodological contributions and the policy implications of our findings.

previous article Technical efficiency in the Italian performing arts companies

next article Human capital signals and entrepreneurs’ success in equity crowdfunding

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

inform now

Available only for authorised users

For a slightly different approach to laddering interview methods, see Bourne and Jenkins (2005).

Although paper-and-pencil versions of the laddering technique exist, personally meeting and interviewing the entrepreneurs is beneficial to research because doing so allows entrepreneurs to better comprehend the questions and enables interviewers to obtain rich insights into the research question (Grunert and Grunert 1995).

The definition of NTBFs is linked to the OECD definition of “technology intensive” goods, which classifies technology-intensive industries, according to their average R&D intensity, into “High-Tech Industries” (R&D intensity above 8.5%), “Medium-Tech industries” (R&D intensity between 3.5 and 8.5%), and “Low-Tech industries” (R&D intensity below 3.5%). NTBFs belong to the “High-Tech” and “Medium-Tech” categories (Almus and Nerlinger 1999).

We also acknowledge that entrepreneurs’ gender might have an impact. Unfortunately, given that only about 26% of the population of NTBFs entrepreneurs in the region were female, we excluded this criterion from our matched-pair strategy.

This criterion did not imply that the respondent companies had no internationalization experience. As explained in the next paragraphs, some companies had occasionally operated in international markets in the past. We thus consider firm-level previous international experience as a relevant characteristic to account for in our analyses.

None of the companies were owned by institutional investors, such as venture capitalists or business angels, and only one company was founded with the support of an incubator.

Analyses of the matched-pair groups revealed no significant differences between foreign-born and native entrepreneurs, with the exception that foreign-born entrepreneurs have shorter work experiences in Italy and that they have more knowledge of foreign languages.

As an example, content related to “curiosity/learning” and “independence” was coded under “self-direction” because this value is related to “independent thought and action-choosing, creating, exploring (creativity, freedom, independent, curious, choosing own goals)” (Bardi and Schwartz 2003, p. 1208). Content related to “economic wellbeing” and “prestige” was coded under “power” because this value is related to “social status and prestige, control, or dominance over people and resources (social power, authority, wealth)” (Bardi and Schwartz 2003, p. 1208).

Agle, B. R., & Caldwell, C. B. (1999). Understanding research on values in business. Business and Society, 38(3), 326–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/000765039903800305.

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.

Albaum, G., Strandskov, J., Duerr, E., & Dowd, L. (1994). International marketing and export management (2nd ed.). Wokingham: Addison-Wesley.

Almus, M., & Nerlinger, E. A. (1999). Growth of new technology-based firms: Which factors matter? Small Business Economics, 13, 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008138709724.

Amit, R., & Muller, E. (1995). “Push” and “pull” entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 12(4), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.1995.10600505.

Andersson, S., Gabrielsson, J., & Wictor, I. (2004). International activities in small firms: examining factors influencing the internationalization and export growth of small firms. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 21(1), 22–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-4490.2004.tb00320.x.

Armitage, C. J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 471–499. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164939.

Austin, J., & Vancouver, J. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338.

Bagozzi, R. P., & Dabholkar, P. A. (1994). Consumer recycling goals and their effect on decision to recycle: A means-end chain analysis. Psychology and Marketing, 11(4), 313–340. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.4220110403.

Bagozzi, R. P., & Dabholkar, P. A. (2000). Discursive psychology: An alternative conceptual foundation to means-end chain theory. Psychology and Marketing, 17(7), 535–586. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(200007)17:7<535::AID-MAR1>3.0.CO;2-H.

Bagozzi, R. P., Bergami, M., & Leone, L. (2003). Hierarchical representation of motives in goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 915–943. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.915.

Baker, S. (2002). Laddering: Making sense of meaning. In D. Partington (Ed.), Essential Skills for Management Research (pp. 226–253). London: Sage.

Bardi, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2003). Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(10), 1207–1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203254602.

Bardi, A., Calogero, R. M., & Mullen, B. (2008). A new archival approach to the study of values and value–behavior relations: Validation of the value lexicon. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.483.

Bateman, T. S., O’Neill, H., & Kenworthy-U’Ren, A. (2002). A hierarchical taxonomy of top managers’ goals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1134–1148. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.87.6.1134.

Baum, J. R., Locke, E. A., & Kirkpatrick, S. A. (1998). A longitudinal study of the relation of vision and vision communication to venture growth in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.43.

Bhide, A. (1996). The questions every entrepreneur must answer. Harvard Business Review, 74(6), 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0267-3649(00)88914-1.

Bird, B. (1988). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case for intention. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 442–453. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1988.4306970.

Bonaccorsi, A. (1992). On the relationship between firm size and export intensity. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), 605–635. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490280.

Bourne, H., & Jenkins, M. (2005). Eliciting managers’ personal values: An adaptation of the laddering interview method. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 410–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428105280118.

Brooks, M. R., & Rosson, P. J. (1982). A study of export behaviour of small and medium-sized manufacturing firms in three Canadian provinces. In M. R. Czinkota & G. Tesar (Eds.), Export management: An international context (pp. 39–54). New York: Praeger Publishers.

Burpitt, W. J., & Rondinelli, D. A. (2000). Small firms' motivations for exporting: to earn and learn? Journal of Small Business Management, 38(4), 1–14.

Capar, N., & Kotabe, M. (2003). The relationship between international diversification and performance in service firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 34(4), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400036.

Caprara, G. V., Schwartz, S. H., Capanna, C., Vecchione, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2006). Personality and politics: Values, traits, and political choice. Political Psychology, 27, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00447.x.

Carr, J. C., Haggard, K. S., Hmieleski, K. M., & Zahra, S. A. (2010). A study of the moderating effects of firm age at internationalization on firm survival and short-term growth. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 4(2), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.90.

Carsrud, A., & Brännback, M. (2011). Entrepreneurial motivations: What do we still need to know? Journal of Small Business Management, 49(1), 9–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00312.x.

Carter, N. M., Gartner, W. B., Shaver, K. G., & Gatewood, E. J. (2003). The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(02)00078-2.

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Cassar, G. (2007). Money, money, money? A longitudinal investigation of entrepreneur career reasons, growth preferences and achieved growth. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 19(1), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620601002246.

Chaganti, R. R. S., Watts, A. D., Chaganti, R., & Zimmerman-Treichel, M. (2008). Ethnic-immigrants in founding teams: Effects on prospector strategy and performance in new Internet ventures. Journal of Business Venturing, 23, 113–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.07.004.

Chandra, Y., Styles, C., & Wilkinson, I. (2009). The recognition of first time international entrepreneurial opportunities: Evidence from firms in knowledge-based industries. International Marketing Review, 26(1), 30–61. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651330910933195.

Chetty, S., & Campbell-Hunt, C. (2003). Paths to internationalisation among small-to medium-sized firms: a global versus regional approach. European Journal of Marketing, 37(5/6), 796–820. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090560310465152.

Colombo, M. G., Del Mastro, M., & Grilli, L. (2004). Entrepreneurs’ human capital and the start-up size of new technology-based firms. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 22, 1183–1211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijindorg.2004.06.006.

Coviello, N. E., & Jones, M. V. (2004). Methodological issues in international entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Venturing, 19, 485–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2003.06.001.

Crick, D., & Spence, M. (2005). The internationalisation of ‘high performing’ UK high-tech SMEs: A study of planned and unplanned strategies. International Business Review, 14(2), 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.007.

Cuervo-Cazurra, A., Narula, R., & Un, C. A. (2015). Internationalization motives: sell more, buy better, upgrade and escape. The Multinational Business Review, 23(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/MBR-02-2015-0009.

Davidsson, P., & Wiklund, J. (1997). Values, beliefs and regional variations in new firm formation rates. Journal of Economic Psychology, 18(2–3), 179–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(97)00004-4.

de Ferran, F., & Grunert, K. G. (2007). French fair trade coffee buyers’ purchasing motives: An exploratory study using means-end-chain analysis. Food Quality and Preference, 18, 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.11.001.

Deeter-Schmelz, D. R., Kennedy, K. N., & Goebel, D. J. (2002). Understanding sales manager effectiveness: Linking attributes to sales force values. Industrial Marketing Management, 31(7), 617–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0019-8501(02)00182-7.

Delmar, F., & Wiklund, J. (2008). The effect of small business managers’ growth motivation on firm growth: A longitudinal study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 32(3), 437–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2008.00235.x.

Dimitratos, P., & Plakoyiannaki, E. (2003). Theoretical foundations of an international entrepreneurial culture. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 1(2), 187–215. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023804318244.

Dunkelberg, W., Moore, C., Scott, J., & Stull, W. (2013). Do entrepreneurial goals matter? Resource allocation in new owner-managed firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(2), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.07.004.

Dunning, J. H. (1993). Multinational enterprises and the global economy. Workingham: Addison-Wesley.

Durmuşoğlu, S. S., Apfelthaler, G., Nayir, D. Z., Alvarez, R., & Mughan, T. (2012). The effect of government-designed export promotion service use on small and medium-sized enterprise goal achievement: A multidimensional view of export performance. Industrial Marketing Management, 41(4), 680–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2011.09.016.

European Commission (2010). Internationalization of European SMEs. Brussels: Entrepreneurship Unit. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/market-access/files/internationalisation_of_european_smes_final_en.pdf±&cd=1&hl=it&ct=clnk&gl=it. Accessed 16 Aug 2015.

Fabian, F., & Ndofor, H. A. (2007). The context of entrepreneurial processes: one size does not fit all. In G. T. Lumpkin & J. A. Katz (Eds.), Advances in entrepreneurship, firm emergence, and growth, Vol. 10 Entrepreneurial strategic processes (pp. 249–279). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.

Fauchart, E., & Gruber, M. (2011). Darwinians, communitarians, and missionaries: The role of founder identity in entrepreneurship. Academy of Management Journal, 54(5), 935–957. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0211.

Fayolle, A., Liñán, F., & Moriano, J. A. (2014). Beyond entrepreneurial intentions: Values and motivations in entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship Management Journal, 10, 679–689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-014-0306-7.

Feather, N. T. (1995). Values, valences, and choice: The influence of values on the perceived attractiveness and choice of alternatives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(6), 1135–1151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1135.

Filion, L. J. (1991). Vision and relations: Elements for an entrepreneurial metamodel. International Small Business Journal, 9(2), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/026624269100900202.

Fischer, R., & Smith, P. B. (2004). Values and organizational justice: Performance and seniority-based allocation criteria in the United Kingdom and Germany. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 6, 669–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104270110.

Fleiss, J. L. (1971). Measuring nominal scale agreement among many raters. Psychological Bullettin, 76(5), 378–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031619.

Foote, D., & Lamb, K. (2002). Eliciting information about the values of HRM practitioners using laddering interviews. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(3), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8608.00282.

Giovannetti, G., Ricchiuti, G., & Velucchi, M. (2011). Size, innovation and internationalization: A survival analysis of Italian firms. Applied Economics, 43(12), 1511–1520. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840802600566.

Gorgiewski, M. J., Ascalon, M. E., & Stephan, U. (2011). Small business owners’ success criteria, a values approach to personal differences. Journal of Small Business Management, 49(2), 207–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2011.00322.x.

Grunert, K. G., & Grunert, S. C. (1995). Measuring subjective meaning structures by the laddering method: Theoretical considerations and methodological problems. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 12, 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00022-T.

Grunert, S. C., & Juhl, H. J. (1995). Values, environmental attitudes, and buying organic foods. Journal of Economic Psychology, 16, 39–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-4870(94)00034-8.

Guenzi, P., & Panzeri, F. (2015). How salespeople see organizational citizenship behaviors: An exploratory study using the laddering technique. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 30(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-01-2013-0026.

Gutman, J. (1997). Means-end chains as goal hierarchies. Psychology and Marketing, 14(6), 545–560. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199709)14:6<545::AID-MAR2>3.0.CO;2-7.

Hallaert, J. (2010). Increasing the impact of trade expansion on growth: Lessons from trade reforms for the design of aid for trade, OECD trade policy papers, No. 100, OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/trade/aft/45620314.pdf. Accessed 31 Aug 2015.

Harms, R., & Schiele, H. (2012). Antecedents and consequences of effectuation and causation in the international new venture creation process. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 10(2), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-012-0089-2.

Hemingway, C. A. (2005). Personal values as a catalyst for corporate social entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics, 60(3), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-0132-5.

Herron, L., & Sapienza, H. J. (1992). The entrepreneur and the initiation of new venture launch activities. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 17(1), 49–55.

Hessels, J., Van Gelderen, M., & Thurik, R. (2008). Entrepreneurial aspirations, motivations, and their drivers. Small Business Economics, 31, 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-008-9134-x.

Hinkle, D. (1965). The change of personal constructs from the viewpoint of a theory of implications. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University.

Hitlin, S., & Piliavin, J. A. (2004). Values: Reviving a dormant concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 359–393. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110640.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. International differences in work-related values. In J. L. Walter & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Cross-cultural research and methodology series. California: Sage Publications.

Holland, D. V., & Shepherd, D. A. (2013). Deciding to persist: Adversity, values, and entrepreneurs’ decision policies. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(2), 331–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00468.x.

Hollenstein, H. (2005). Determinants of international activities: Are SME’s different? Small Business Economics, 24(5), 431–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-6455-x.

Holt, D. (1997). A comparative study of values among Chinese and U.S. entrepreneurs: Pragmatic convergence between contrasting cultures. Journal of Business Venturing, 12(6), 484–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(96)00131-0.

House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00069-4.

Huber, G., & Power, D. (1985). Retrospective reports of strategic-level managers: Guidelines for increasing their accuracy. Strategic Management Journal, 6, 171–180.

Hutchinson, K., Alexander, N., Quinn, B., & Doherty, A. M. (2007). Internationalization motives and facilitating factors: Qualitative evidence from smaller specialist retailers. Journal of International Marketing, 15(3), 96–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250060206.

Inglehart, R. (2006). Mapping global values. Comparative Sociology, 5(2), 115–136. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913306778667401.

Johnson, M. K., & Elder Jr., G. H. (2002). Educational pathways and work value trajectories. Sociological Perspectives, 45(2), 113–138. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2002.45.2.113.

Johnston, W. J., & Czinkota, M. R. (1982). Managerial motivations as determinants of industrial export behavior. In M. R. Czinkota & G. R. Tesar (Eds.), Export management: An international context (pp. 147–153). New York: Praeger Publishers.

Jones, M. V., & Coviello, N. (2005). Internationalization: Conceptualizing an entrepreneurial process of behavior in time. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(3), 284–303. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400138.

Jones, M. V., Coviello, N., & Tang, Y. K. (2011). International entrepreneurship research (1989–2009): A domain ontology and thematic analysis. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(6), 632–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2011.04.001.

Kautonen, T., van Gelderen, M., & Finkt, M. (2015). Robustness of the theory of planned behavior in predicting entrepreneurial intentions and actions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 39(3), 655–674. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12056.

Kaynak, E., & Stevenson, L. (1982). Export orientation of Nova Scotia manufacturers. In M. R. Czinkota & G. Tesar (Eds.), Export Management: An International Context (pp. 132–145). New York: Praeger Publishers.

Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers.

Kirkwood, J., & Walton, S. (2010). How ecopreneurs’ green values affect their international engagement in supply chain management. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 200–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-010-0056-8.

Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1982). Job conditions and personality: A longitudinal assessment of their reciprocal effects. American Journal of Sociology, 87(6), 1257–1286. https://doi.org/10.1086/227593.

Kolvereid, L. (1992). Growth aspiration among Norwegian entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 7, 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(92)90027-O.

Kotlar, J., & De Massis, A. (2013). Goal setting in family firms: Goal diversity, social interactions, and collective commitment to family-centered goals. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(6), 1263–1288. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12065.

Krueger, N. F. (2000). The cognitive infrastructure of opportunity emergence. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 24(3), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-48543-8_9.

Kuratko, D., Hornsby, J., & Naffziger, D. (1997). An examination of owner's goals in sustaining entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 35(1), 24–33.

Leiserowitz, A. A., Kates, R. W., & Parris, T. M. (2006). Sustainability values, attitudes, and behaviors: A review of multinational and global trends. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 31, 413–444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.31.102505.133552.

Leonidou, L. C. (1995). Export stimulation research: Review, evaluation and integration. International Business Review, 4, 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/0969-5931(95)00002-H.

Leonidou, L. C. (1998). Factors stimulating export business: An empirical investigation. Journal of Applied Business Research, 14, 43–68. 10.19030/jabr.v14i2.5714.

Licht, A. N. (2007). The entrepreneurial spirit and what the law can do about it. Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal, 28, 817–862.

Lindsay, P., & Knox, W. E. (1984). Continuity and change in work values among young adults: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Sociology, 89(4), 918–931. https://doi.org/10.1086/227950.

Lipponen, J., Bardi, A., & Haapamäki, J. (2008). The interaction between values and organizational identification in predicting suggestion-making at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81(2), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317907X216658.

Locke, E. A., & Baum, J. R. (2007). Entrepreneurial motivation. In J. R. Baum, M. Frese, & R. Baron (Eds.), The psychology of entrepreneurship (pp. 93–112). Hove: Psychology Press.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705.

Madsen, T. K., & Servais, P. (1997). The internationalization of born globals: an evolutionary process? International Business Review, 6(6), 561–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(97)00032-2.

Matusik, S. F., George, J. M., & Heeley, M. B. (2008). Values and judgment under uncertainty: Evidence from venture capitalist assessment of founders. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 2, 95–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.45.

McMullen, J. S., & Shepherd, D. A. (2006). Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 132–152. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.19379628.

Meglino, B. M., & Ravlin, E. C. (1998). Individual values in organizations: Concepts, controversies, and research. Journal of Management, 24(3), 351–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(99)80065-8.

Mickiewicz, T., Sauka, A., & Stephan, U. (2016). On the compatibility of benevolence and self-interest: Philanthropy and entrepreneurial orientation. International Small Business Journal, 34(3), 303–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614555245.

Miles, S., & Rowe, G. (2004). The laddering technique. In G. Breakwell (Ed.), Doing social psychology research (pp. 305–343). Oxford: British Psychological Society and Blackwell Publishing Ltd..

Mitchell, R. K., Busenitz, L. W., Bird, B., Marie Gaglio, C., McMullen, J. S., Morse, E. A., & Smith, J. B. (2007). The central question in entrepreneurial cognition research 2007. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-8520.00001.

Morandin, G., Bergami, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2006). The hierarchical cognitive structure of entrepreneur motivation toward private equity financing. Venture Capital, 8(3), 253–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691060600748546.

Morgan, R. E., & Katsikeas, C. S. (1997). Export stimuli: Export intention compared with export activity. International Business Review, 6(5), 477–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(97)00017-6.

Morris, M. W., Williams, K. Y., Kwok, L., Larrick, R., Mendoza, M. T., Bhatnagar, D., Li, J., Kondo, M., Luo, J. L., & Hu, J. C. (1998). Conflict management style: Accounting for cross-national differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(4), 729–747. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490050.

Mortimer, J. T., & Lorence, J. (1979). Work experience and occupational value socialization: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Sociology, 84(6), 1361–1385. https://doi.org/10.1086/226938.

Neimeyer, A., Anderson, A., & Stockton, L. R. (2001). Snakes versus ladders: A validation of laddering technique as a measure of hierarchical structure. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 14(2), 85–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720530125990.

NFIB (2004). National small business poll. International trade, NFIB Research Foundation Series, 4(1). Retrieved from http://www.411sbfacts.com/files/internationalTrade.pdf. Accessed 21 Sept 2015.

NSBA (2016). Small business exporting survey 2016. National Small Business Association and Small Business Exporters Association. Retrieved from http://www.nsba.biz/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Export-Survey-2016-Final.pdf. Accessed 21 Aug 2017.

Nunkoo, R., & Ramkissoon, H. (2009). Applying the means-end chain theory and the laddering technique to the study of host attitudes to tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802159735.

OECD (2012). Fostering SMEs’ participation in global markets: Final report. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=CFE/SME(2012)6/FINAL&docLanguage=En. Accessed 27 Aug 2015.

Oviatt, B. M., & McDougall, P. P. (2005). Defining international entrepreneurship and modeling the speed of internationalization. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29, 537–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00097.x.

Parks-Leduc, L., Feldman, G., & Bardi, A. (2015). Personality traits and personal values: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538548.

Pieray, N. F. (1981). Company internationalization: Active and reactive exporting. European Journal of Marketing, 15(3), 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004876.

Pieters, R., Baumgartner, H., & Allen, D. (1995). A means-end chain approach to consumer goal structures. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 12, 227–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(95)00023-U.

Ravlin, E. C., & Meglino, B. M. (1987). Effect of values on perception and decision making: A study of alternative work values measures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 666–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.4.666.

Reynolds, T. J., & Gutman, J. (1988). Laddering theory, method, analysis, and interpretation. Journal of Advertising Research, 28(1), 11–31.

Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H., & Knafo, A. (2002). The Big Five personality factors and personal values. Personality and Social Psychology Bullettin, 28(6), 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202289008.

Rohan, M. J. (2000). A rose by any name? The values construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(3), 255–277. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0403_4.

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.

Rokeach, M., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1989). Stability and change in American value priorities, 1969-1981. American Psychologist, 44, 775–784. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.5.775.

Rugg, G., Eva, M., Mahmood, A., Rehman, N., Andrews, S., & Davies, S. (2002). Eliciting information about organizational culture via laddering. Information Systems Journal, 12(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2575.2002.00124.x.

Rugman, A. M. (1976). Risk reduction by international diversification. Journal of International Business Studies, 7(2), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490702.

Sapienza, H. J., Autio, E., George, G., & Zahra, S. A. (2006). A capabilities perspective on the effects of early internationalization on firm survival and growth. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 914–933. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2006.22527465.

Sarasvathy, S. D. (2001). Causation and effectuation: Toward a theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneurial contingency. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2001.4378020.

Sarasvathy, S., Kumar, K., York, J. G., & Bhagavatula, S. (2014). An effectual approach to international entrepreneurship: Overlaps, challenges, and provocative possibilities. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(1), 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12088.

Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development: An inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle (Vol. 55). Piscataway: Transaction Publishers.

Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60281-6.

Schwartz, S. H. (1996). Value priorities and behavior: Applying a theory of integrated value systems. In C. Seligman, J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The Ontario symposium: The psychology of values (Vol. 8, pp. 1–24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Schwartz, S. H. (2011). Studying values: Personal adventure, future directions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(2), 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110396925.

Schwartz, S. H. (2014). Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113490830.

Schwartz, S. H., & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective. The Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(3), 268–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032003002.

Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(3), 550–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.3.550.

Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1990). Toward a theory of universal content and structure of values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), 878–891. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.5.878.

Schwartz, S. H., & Rubel, T. (2005). Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 1010–1028. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.1010.

Scott, J. (1991). Social network analysis: A Handbook. London: Sage.

Shane, S., Locke, E. A., & Collins, C. J. (2003). Entrepreneurial motivation. Human Resource Management Review, 13, 257–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(03)00017-2.

Sheeran, P. (2002). Intention-behaviour relations: A conceptual and empirical overview. European Review of Social Psychology, 12(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792772143000003.

Sommer, L., & Haug, M. (2011). Intentions as a cognitive antecedents to international entrepreneurship–understanding the moderating roles of knowledge and experience. Journal of International Entrepreneurship Management, 7, 111–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0162-z.

Tan, A., Brewer, P., & Liesch, P. W. (2007). Before the first export decision: Internationalisation readiness in the pre-export phase. International Business Review, 16(3), 294–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2007.01.001.

ter Hofstede, F., Audenaert, A., Steenkamp, J. B. E. M., & Wedel, M. (1998). An investigation into the association pattern technique as a quantitative approach to measuring means-end chains. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 15, 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8116(97)00029-3.

Tomczyk, D., Lee, J., & Wislow, E. (2013). Entrepreneurs’ personal values, compensation, and high growth firm performance. Journal of Small Business Management, 51(1), 66–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2012.00374.x.

U.S. Department of Commerce (2015a). A basic guide to exporting (11th edition). Washinghton: U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved from http://export.gov/basicguide/?utm_source=hero&utm_medium=exportgov%20&utm_campaign=basicguide. Accessed 23 Sept 2015.

U.S. Department of Commerce (2015b). Exporting is good for your bottom line. Retrieved from http://www.trade.gov/cs/factsheet.asp. Accessed 21 Sept 2015.

U.S. President Executive Office (2015). The economic benefits of U.S. trade. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/cea_trade_report_final_non-embargoed_v2.pdf. Accessed 21 Sept 2015.

Verplanken, B., & Holland, R. W. (2002). Motivated decision making: Effects of activation and self-centrality of values on choices and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 434–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.434.

Walker, B. M., & Winter, D. A. (2007). The elaboration of personal construct psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 453–477. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085535.

Wang, Q., & Liu, C. Y. (2015). Transnational activities of immigrant-owned firms and their performances in the USA. Small Business Economics, 44(2), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-014-9595-z.

Watkins, L. (2010). The cross-cultural appropriateness of survey-based value(s) research: A review of methodological issues and suggestion of alternative methodology. International Marketing Review, 27(6), 694–716. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651331011088290.

Westhead, P., Wright, M., & Ucbasaran, D. (2002). International market selection strategies selected by ‘micro’ and ‘small’ firms. Omega, 30, 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-0483(01)00056-1.

Westhead, P., Ucbasaran, D., Wright, M., & Binks, M. (2005). Novice, serial and portfolio entrepreneur behaviour and contributions. Small Business Economics, 25(2), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-003-6461-9.

Wiklund, J., Davidsson, P., & Delmar, F. (2003). What do they think and feel about growth? An expectancy-value approach to small business managers’ attitudes toward growth. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 27(3), 247–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-8520.t01-1-00003.

Williams Jr., R. M. (1979). Change and stability in values and value systems: A sociological perspective. In M. Rokeach (Ed.), Understanding human values: Individual and societal (pp. 15–46). New York: Free Press.

Wolff, J. A., & Pett, T. L. (2006). Small-firm performance: Modeling the role of product and process improvements. Journal of Small Business Management, 44(2), 268–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2006.00167.x.

Wright, M., Westhead, P., & Ucbasaran, D. (2007). Internationalization of SMEs and international entrepreneurship: A critique and policy implications. Regional Studies, 41(7), 1013–1030. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601120288.

Yamakawa, Y., Peng, M. W., & Deeds, D. L. (2008). What drives new ventures to internationalize from emerging to developed economies? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 32(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00216.x.

York, J. G., O'Neil, I., & Sarasvathy, S. D. (2016). Exploring environmental entrepreneurship: Identity coupling, venture goals, and stakeholder incentives. Journal of Management Studies, 53(5), 695–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12198.

Zahra, S. A., Korri, J. S., & Yu, J. (2005). Cognition and international entrepreneurship: Implications for research on international opportunity recognition and exploitation. International Business Review, 14(2), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.005.

Zhao, H., & Seibert, S. E. (2006). The Big Five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.259.

Title: The “why” of international entrepreneurship: uncovering entrepreneurs’ personal values
Authors: Daniela Bolzani
Maw Der Foo
Publication date: 24-10-2017
Publisher: Springer US
Published in: Small Business Economics / Issue 3/2018
Print ISSN: 0921-898X
Electronic ISSN: 1573-0913
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9945-8

Springer Professional

Abstract

Please log in to get access to your license.

Dont have a licence yet? Then find out more about our products and how to get one now:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Other articles of this Issue 3/2018

Defaults in bank loans to SMEs during the financial crisis

The influence of family ownership dispersion on debt level in privately held firms

Entrepreneurship and local economic resilience: the impact of institutional hysteresis in peripheral places

Human capital signals and entrepreneurs’ success in equity crowdfunding

Does mobile money use increase firms’ investment? Evidence from Enterprise Surveys in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania

The socially and spatially bounded relationships of entrepreneurial activity: Olav Sorenson—recipient of the 2018 Global Award for Entrepreneurship Research