1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 The mortality hazard rate
2.2 Mediation analysis for the mortality hazard rate
3 Data
Primary education | Lower vocational | Lower secondary | Higher education | All levels | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Birth order | |||||
1 | 27.8 | 32.1 | 39.3 | 42.6 | 35.5 |
2 | 27.1 | 30.3 | 30.7 | 29.9 | 29.9 |
3 | 18.7 | 18.4 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 17.3 |
4 | 11.3 | 9.2 | 6.9 | 7.0 | 8.4 |
\(\ge \,5\) | 14.9 | 10.0 | 6.7 | 5.1 | 8.8 |
Region of birth | |||||
North | 2.9 | 4.2 | 3.2 | 2.3 | 3.4 |
South | 8.3 | 7.2 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 6.4 |
East | 4.8 | 6.0 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 4.7 |
North-Holland | 35.2 | 31.8 | 35.6 | 38.2 | 34.2 |
South-Holland | 38.2 | 43.5 | 44.7 | 42.0 | 43.0 |
Utrecht | 10.7 | 7.4 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 8.4 |
Religion | |||||
Catholic | 40.3 | 32.5 | 30.3 | 31.4 | 32.7 |
Dutch Reformed | 25.5 | 31.2 | 31.3 | 30.2 | 30.2 |
Calvin | 3.6 | 7.5 | 8.6 | 9.3 | 7.3 |
Other religion | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 |
No religion | 30.1 | 28.2 | 29.0 | 28.1 | 28.8 |
Father’s occupation | |||||
Professional | 8.7 | 10.2 | 17.2 | 39.0 | 17.0 |
White collar | 19.7 | 29.7 | 42.8 | 42.9 | 34.8 |
Farm owner | 3.0 | 5.7 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 3.5 |
Skilled | 38.4 | 33.3 | 23.1 | 9.2 | 26.7 |
Unskilled | 22.5 | 14.9 | 9.4 | 3.4 | 12.3 |
Unknown | 7.7 | 6.2 | 5.3 | 3.9 | 5.7 |
Global comprehensive IQ-score | |||||
1 (highest) | 0.1 | 6.3 | 19.8 | 54.6 | 17.6 |
2 | 3.8 | 27.5 | 47.9 | 37.7 | 32.5 |
3 | 13.7 | 30.3 | 20.9 | 4.0 | 20.6 |
4 | 28.3 | 22.7 | 7.2 | 0.6 | 14.9 |
5 | 39.5 | 10.6 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 10.1 |
6 (lowest) | 11.5 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.02 | 2.0 |
Missing | 3.1 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 3.0 | 2.4 |
Total \(\#\) of deaths | 1404 | 2918 | 2403 | 953 | 7678 |
% died | 25.2 | 20.5 | 18.8 | 15.4 | 19.8 |
Sample size | 5713 | 14,574 | 13,125 | 6391 | 39,803 |
3.1 Results
3.2 Hazard models and mediation analysis
Total effect | Other pathways | Cognitive ability | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | IPW |
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
| |
Primary to lower vocational |
\(-\,0.250^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.222^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.060\)
|
\(-\,0.093^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.162^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
(0.038) | (0.034) | (0.067) | (0.045) | (0.075) | (0.056) | |
Lower vocational to lower secondary |
\(-\,0.089^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
(0.029) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.044) | (0.048) | |
Lower secondary to higher |
\(-\,0.229^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.044) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.070) | (0.071) | (0.085) |
3.3 Robustness checks
Total effect | Other pathways | Cognitive ability | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | IPW |
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
| |
Primary to lower vocational |
\(-\,0.227^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.247^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.061\)
|
\(-\,0.093^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.166^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.133^{+ }\)
|
(0.038) | (0.039) | (0.068) | (0.045) | (0.077) | (0.059) | |
Lower vocational to lower secondary |
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.090^{**}\)
| 0.007 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.093^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
(0.029) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.044) | (0.049) | |
Lower secondary to higher |
\(-\,0.204^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.200^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
\(-\,0.077\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.047) | (0.045) | (0.053) | (0.071) | (0.071) | (0.085) |
Total | Other pathways | Cognitive ability | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
| ||
Primary to lower vocational |
\(-\,0.194^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.044\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.151^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.115^{+ }\)
|
(0.034) | (0.064) | (0.045) | (0.073) | (0.057) | |
Lower vocational to lower secondary |
\(-\,0.089^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.005\)
| 0.005 |
\(-\,0.085\)
|
\(-\,0.094\)
|
(0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.043) | (0.048) | |
Lower secondary to higher |
\(-\,0.213^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.140^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
\(-\,0.073\)
|
\(-\,0.105\)
|
(0.049) | (0.054) | (0.072) | (0.073) | (0.087) |
3.4 Sensitivity analyses
Primary to lower vocational | Lower vocational to lower secondary | Lower secondary to higher | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total effect | Total effect | Total effect | ||||
Original |
\(-\,0.222^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
| |||
(0.034) | (0.029) | (0.048) | ||||
IQ | ||||||
1 (highest) |
\(-\,0.222^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.053\)
|
\(-\,0.124^{+ }\)
| |||
(0.140) | (0.030) | (0.057) | ||||
2 |
\(-\,0.160^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.068^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.196^{**}\)
| |||
(0.058) | (0.030) | (0.049) | ||||
4 |
\(-\,0.225^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.056\)
|
\(-\,0.204^{**}\)
| |||
(0.035) | (0.031) | (0.067) | ||||
5 |
\(-\,0.179^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.055\)
|
\(-\,0.207^{**}\)
| |||
(0.041) | (0.033) | (0.053) | ||||
6 (lowest) |
\(-\,0.198^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.081^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
| |||
(0.039) | (0.029) | (0.048) | ||||
Missing |
\(-\,0.220^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.208^{**}\)
| |||
(0.035) | (0.029) | (0.048) |
Other pathways | Other pathways | Other pathways | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
| |
Original |
\(-\,0.060\)
|
\(-\,0.093^{+ }\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.067) | (0.045) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
IQ | ||||||
1 (highest) | 0.061 |
\(-\,0.087\)
| 0.040 | 0.049 |
\(-\,0.044\)
|
\(-\,0.009\)
|
(0.379) | (0.130) | (0.035) | (0.041) | (0.062) | (0.099) | |
2 | 0.085 |
\(-\,0.028\)
| 0.023 | 0.032 |
\(-\,0.117^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.086\)
|
(0.260) | (0.063) | (0.035) | (0.041) | (0.054) | (0.074) | |
4 |
\(-\,0.064\)
|
\(-\,0.097^{+ }\)
| 0.037 | 0.049 |
\(-\,0.125\)
|
\(-\,0.082\)
|
(0.068) | (0.045) | (0.036) | (0.046) | (0.072) | (0.202) | |
5 |
\(-\,0.010\)
|
\(-\,0.047\)
| 0.038 | 0.052 |
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.095\)
|
(0.093) | (0.053) | (0.037) | (0.053) | (0.059) | (0.113) | |
6 (lowest) |
\(-\,0.033\)
|
\(-\,0.062\)
| 0.011 | 0.021 |
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.074) | (0.067) | (0.033) | (0.050) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
Missing |
\(-\,0.058\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.099\)
|
(0.067) | (0.045) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.053) | (0.070) |
Cognitive ability | Cognitive ability | Cognitive ability | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
| |
Original |
\(-\,0.162^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.075) | (0.056) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
IQ | ||||||
1 (highest) |
\(-\,0.283\)
|
\(-\,0.134\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.102^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.081\)
|
\(-\,0.115\)
|
(0.405) | (0.191) | (0.046) | (0.051) | (0.084) | (0.114) | |
2 |
\(-\,0.246\)
|
\(-\,0.132\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.101^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.110\)
|
(0.267) | (0.086) | (0.046) | (0.051) | (0.073) | (0.088) | |
4 |
\(-\,0.161^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.093\)
|
\(-\,0.105\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.122\)
|
(0.076) | (0.057) | (0.047) | (0.055) | (0.098) | (0.213) | |
5 |
\(-\,0.169\)
|
\(-\,0.132\)
|
\(-\,0.093\)
|
\(-\,0.107\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.111\)
|
(0.101) | (0.067) | (0.049) | (0.062) | (0.079) | (0.125) | |
6 (lowest) |
\(-\,0.166^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.137\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.102\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.083) | (0.077) | (0.044) | (0.058) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
Missing |
\(-\,0.161^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.076) | (0.057) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) |
Primary to lower vocational | Lower vocational to lower secondary | Lower secondary to higher | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total effect | Other pathways | Total effect | Other pathways | Total effect | Other pathways | ||||
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
|
\(\theta (1)\)
|
\(\theta (0)\)
| ||||
Original |
\(-\,0.222^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.060\)
|
\(-\,0.093^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.034) | (0.067) | (0.045) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.207^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.043\)
|
\(-\,0.078\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.035) | (0.068) | (0.045) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.175^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.003\)
|
\(-\,0.046\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.037) | (0.076) | (0.046) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.128^{**}\)
| 0.057 | 0.001 |
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.040) | (0.098) | (0.050) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.039\)
| 0.195 | 0.091 |
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
(0.046) | (0.142) | (0.055) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.072) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(0.228^{**}\)
|
\(0.637^{**}\)
|
\(0.360^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.005 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.052) | (0.212) | (0.062) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.040) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.073) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.183^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.018\)
|
\(-\,0.056\)
|
\(-\,0.082^{**}\)
| 0.010 | 0.018 |
\(-\,0.208^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100\)
|
(0.035) | (0.068) | (0.045) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.159^{**}\)
| 0.011 |
\(-\,0.031\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.037) | (0.071) | (0.046) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.082^{+ }\)
| 0.108 | 0.047 |
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.038) | (0.083) | (0.048) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.4\) | 0.048 |
\(0.286^{**}\)
|
\(0.177^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
(0.040) | (0.104) | (0.050) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.072) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(0.253^{**}\)
|
\(0.586^{**}\)
|
\(0.382^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.005 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.040) | (0.119) | (0.051) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.040) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.073) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.149^{**}\)
| 0.016 |
\(-\,0.025\)
|
\(-\,0.077^{**}\)
| 0.014 | 0.023 |
\(-\,0.221^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.142^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.113\)
|
(0.036) | (0.069) | (0.046) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.049) | (0.054) | (0.073) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.117^{**}\)
| 0.056 | 0.009 |
\(-\,0.079^{**}\)
| 0.012 | 0.021 |
\(-\,0.207^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.098\)
|
(0.036) | (0.071) | (0.046) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.069\)
| 0.117 | 0.059 |
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.036) | (0.075) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(0.084^{ +}\)
|
\(0.314^{**}\)
|
\(0.211^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
(0.037) | (0.082) | (0.048) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.072) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(0.207^{**}\)
|
\(0.488^{**}\)
|
\( 0.335^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.005 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.038) | (0.094) | (0.049) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.040) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.073) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.106^{**}\)
| 0.059 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.071^{+ }\)
| 0.018 | 0.027 |
\(-\,0.245^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.167^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.139\)
|
(0.036) | (0.070) | (0.046) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.050) | (0.055) | (0.077) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.061\)
| 0.113 | 0.061 |
\(-\,0.070^{+ }\)
| 0.021 | 0.030 |
\(-\,0.216^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.137^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.036) | (0.072) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.010\)
| 0.181 |
\(0.115^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.077^{**}\)
| 0.014 | 0.023 |
\(-\,0.205^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
(0.036) | (0.074) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.4\) | 0.066 |
\(0.277^{**}\)
|
\(0.193^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.006 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.096\)
|
(0.036) | (0.074) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.05;) | (0.072) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(0.160^{**}\)
|
\(0.408^{**}\)
|
\(0.288^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.005 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.037) | (0.082) | (0.048) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.040) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.073) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.048\)
| 0.116 | 0.066 |
\(-\,0.063^{+ }\)
| 0.024 | 0.033 |
\(-\,0.285^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.207^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.181^{+ }\)
|
(0.037) | (0.071) | (0.047) | (0.030) | (0.034) | (0.040) | (0.052) | (0.058) | (0.082) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.2\) | 0.007 |
\(0.185^{+ }\)
|
\(0.125^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.058^{+ }\)
| 0.031 | 0.041 |
\(-\,0.239^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.160^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.131\)
|
(0.037) | (0.072) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.034) | (0.040) | (0.049) | (0.055) | (0.074) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.3\) | 0.069 |
\(0.263^{**}\)
|
\(0.190^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.063^{+ }\)
| 0.028 | 0.038 |
\(-\,0.212^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.133^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.104\)
|
(0.037) | (0.073) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(0.097^{**}\)
|
\(0.303^{**}\)
|
\(0.221^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.077^{**}\)
| 0.015 | 0.024 |
\(-\,0.205^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.095\)
|
(0.036) | (0.073) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.053) | (0.071) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(0.110^{**}\)
|
\(0.332^{**}\)
|
\(0.238^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.086^{**}\)
| 0.005 | 0.014 |
\(-\,0.206^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.097\)
|
(0.036) | (0.076) | (0.047) | (0.029) | (0.033) | (0.040) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.073) |
Primary to lower vocational | Lower vocational to lower secondary | Lower secondary to higher | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cognitive ability | Cognitive ability | Cognitive ability | ||||
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
|
\(\eta (0)\)
|
\(\eta (1)\)
| |
Original |
\(-\,0.162^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.075) | (0.056) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.164^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.076) | (0.057) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.172^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.084) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.185\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.106) | (0.064) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.233\)
|
\(-\,0.130\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.110\)
|
(0.150) | (0.071) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.1\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(-\,0.409\)
|
\(-\,0.132\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.219) | (0.081) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.087) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.165^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.077) | (0.057) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.170^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.080) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.190^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.091) | (0.061) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.238^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.110\)
|
(0.111) | (0.064) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.2\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(-\,0.333^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.129^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.125) | (0.065) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.087) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.166^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.124^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.099^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.078) | (0.058) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.073) | (0.087) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.172^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.126^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.080) | (0.058) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.186^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.083) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.231^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.110\)
|
(0.090) | (0.051) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.3\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(-\,0.281^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.128^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.101) | (0.062) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.087) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.165^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.120^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.089^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.098^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.079) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.075) | (0.091) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.174^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.123^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.081) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.191^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.125^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.082) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.048) | (0.071) | (0.085) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.212^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.110\)
|
(0.083) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.4\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(-\,0.248^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.090) | (0.061) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.087) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.1\) |
\(-\,0.154\)
|
\(-\,0.114\)
|
\(-\,0.087\)
|
\(-\,0.096^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.078\)
|
\(-\,0.104\)
|
(0.080) | (0.060) | (0.045) | (0.049) | (0.078) | (0.097) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.2\) |
\(-\,0.178^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.118^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.089^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.099^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.107\)
|
(0.081) | (0.060) | (0.045) | (0.049) | (0.074) | (0.089) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.3\) |
\(-\,0.194^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.121^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.091^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.101^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.108\)
|
(0.082) | (0.060) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.4\) |
\(-\,0.206^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.124^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.082) | (0.059) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.086) | |
\(d=0.5\) and \(s=0.5\) |
\(-\,0.222^{**}\)
|
\(-\,0.127^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.092^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.100^{+ }\)
|
\(-\,0.079\)
|
\(-\,0.109\)
|
(0.084) | (0.050) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.072) | (0.087) |
3.5 Implied gain in life expectancy
Primary to lower vocational | Lower vocational to lower secondary | Lower secondary to higher | |
---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | 2.8 | 1.0 | 2.5 |
IPW mediation | |||
Total | 2.5 | 1.0 | 2.2 |
Other pathways | |||
\(\theta (1)\) | 0.7 | \(-\) 0.1 | 1.3 |
\(\theta (0)\) | 1.1 | \(-\) 0.2 | 1.0 |
Cognitive ability | |||
\(\eta (0)\) | 1.8 | 1.1 | 0.9 |
\(\eta (1)\) | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.2 |