Clean Soil and Safe Water

Israel is a water-scarce country situated in a sensitive hydrological area. This has mandated a careful water resources management that integrates water resource augmentation and pollution control. Desalination of seawater and brackish groundwater, together with reclamation and reuse of municipal wastewater, has become a vital component of this concept. It is planned that by 2020, practically all municipal wastewater will be reused, mainly for agricultural irrigation. In this regard, water quality problems related to the presence of emerging trace substances, such as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), may require a quaternary treatment stage that combines activated carbon adsorption, advanced oxidation processes, and desalination. The need for effluent desalination may also be required, due to salination of soil and groundwater caused by long-term irrigation with reclaimed wastewater. Since by 2020, almost 80% of Israel’s fresh water supplies to the urban sector will consist of desalinated water, it will change considerably the composition of the water in use in general and consequently, that of the resulting wastewater.

Research of drinking water quality, especially in a large settlement like Tbilisi (the largest center of population in Georgia) by using modern methods and equipment is the actual task of research of water resources ecological conditions. This work presents the data from research of drinking water quality parameters, the main five physical-chemical parameters – specific electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity, pH and water temperature, in different districts of Tbilisi city and its suburbs. In the course of a year we received data for the controlled points of Tbilisi city vary as follows: pH in the range of 6.75–7.51; total dissolved solids – from 115 up to 185 mg/L; specific electrical conductivity from 231 up to 369 μS/cm; salinity from 0.12 up to 0.18 ppt. The physical-chemical parameters of water quality for Tbilisi city suburb, in the course of a year vary as follows: pH in the range of 6.7–7.5; total dissolved solids from 142 up to 193 mg/L; specific electrical conductivity from 284 up to 386 μS/cm; salinity from 0.14 up to 0.19 ppt. The received data for pH and total dissolved solids for water don’t exceed the values of maximum permissible concentration. Some peculiarities of the collected data are discussed in this paper.

A methodology to use climate change information in water resources evaluation is developed through a meaningful case study in southern Italy (the Apulia region). The problem of the effective information of climate model simulations with respect to small scale impact studies is developed taking into account the limited predictive capability of climate models. Therefore downscaling and bias-correction requirements are treated through a specific methodology based on a quantile variable correction adopting ground based observation of climate variables. The meteorological forcing for the impact study are obtained through the downscaling of atmospheric variables produced by a Regional Climate Model (RCM) called Protheus. The impact assessment on the water balance of the Apulia region (southern Italy) revealed a marked increase in the variability of hydrologic regimes (both runoff and groundwater recharge) as consequence of the increased rainfall variability predicted for the twenty-first century, while preserving a decreasing in the annual trend. Moreover, the analysis of climate change effects was performed focusing on the rainfall-discharge process of a strategic karst spring supplying the Apulia aqueduct. In this case study, no substantial variations in the annual mean discharge are recognized, although a marked decrease in the mean monthly discharge was found between October and December, which represent the start of the recharge period of Apennine aquifers. Such results represent a crucial water management issue that has to be addressed in terms of adaptation to meet future water resources requirements.

This article deals with a study of River Hrazdan basin. We studied underlying man-made factors which impact on formation of quality composition of river water. Guided by the proposed approach, we implemented a comparative analysis between – different by character – loads sections of the watershed and background section where man-made factors are either missing or are poorly manifested. On the basis of landscape and geochemical specificity of the study section of the watershed, the article considers natural and man-made associations of heavy metals. The quantity and quality series of the geochemical stream have been studied and collated. Analysis of contents of several heavy metals in underground waters, which are used as a potable water to the city, have been carried out. Assessments of mineral composition in river and underground water have been implemented.

The human health risk-based approach to contaminated land and groundwater assessment is described. It was developed under the EC financed NORISC project, and later on included in the technical guidelines for guiding remedial activities in Cyprus and Poland. The approach is designed as a two-step process: (1) preliminary site assessment and (2) site-specific assessment. The proposed site-specific human health risk assessment (HRA) process consists of two key phases: (a) baseline human health risk assessment (BHRA), including development of a data set, exposure assessment, toxicity assessment and risk characterisation, and (b) development of site-specific risk-based remedial levels (RBRLs). The proposed site-specific HRA method is based on the methodology of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and is applied throughout the entire remediation process, including the phases before, during and after remediation. In order to present the practical application of the HRA procedure two case studies are described: (1) Moni industrial site (Cyprus) – concentrating on contaminated soil, and (2) Milan-Meton site (Italy) and Linz-Heilham site (Austria) – assessing groundwater contamination.

Results are presented of long-term periodic measurements of content of radioactive gas – radon ²²²Rn in drinking (tap) water from various districts in Tbilisi as a function of time during years 2009 and 2010. It is shown, that according to the level of radon content in tap water, the investigated districts can be divided conditionally into two groups: with rather high radon content – more than 1 Bq l⁻¹ (Vake, Saburtalo, Ortachala), and districts with rather low radon content – less than 1 Bq l⁻¹ (Digomi, Isani, Vazisubani). It is underlined that this circumstance can be connected with presence of two qualitatively distinguished sources of tap water supply in Tbilisi – underground (artesian wells near settlements Natakhtari, Bulachauri, Mukhrani) and surface (the Tbilisi reservoir filled with waters of the rivers Aragvi and Iori) in which conditions of aeration and degassing by radon have an essentially different character. Also some other features in the character of radon distribution are marked. Results of radon content researches in tap water in another large city in Georgia – Rustavi – are also given. Radon concentration varied in the range 0.06–16.5 Bq l⁻¹. Average values of radiological parameters have been estimated: in Tbilisi – committed effective dose (7.7·10⁻⁵ to 1.1·10⁻² mSv·year⁻¹) and dose equivalent to the stomach (2.2·10⁻³ to 3.3·10⁻¹ mSv·year⁻¹), and in Rustavi – committed effective dose (1.5·10⁻⁴ to 4.2·10⁻² mSv·year⁻¹) and dose equivalent to the stomach (4.4·10⁻³ to 1.2·mSv·year⁻¹).

The definition of background values in groundwater is an important issue for the assessment of groundwater contamination caused by local sources. The Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) developed in 2009 the “Technical Guidelines for the evaluation of background levels of inorganic substances in groundwater”. In these Guidelines the definition of the specific geological context, the evaluation of geochemical, chemical and biological phenomena determining the diffuse presence of chemicals in groundwater, the criteria for analysis of existing data, the minimum criteria for the geological and chemical characterization of the groundwater body, the procedures for spatial assessment, statistical analysis of groundwater data and finally the selection of the representative value for background have been set. This paper describes the application of ISPRA Technical Guidelines to the large area of Portoscuso Municipality (SW Sardinia) characterized by a diffuse passive contamination due to a metallurgic industrial district.

According to the Lithuanian legislation, protection zones of public water supply sources are divided into three strips on land: (1) “strip of strict protection”, (2) “strip for protection against microbiological pollution” and (3) “strip for protection against chemical pollution”. The strip of strict protection is the area immediately surrounding the abstraction point. It has to be of at least 5–50 m radius from the abstraction point (geometric criteria). The strip for protection against microbiological pollution is the territory surrounding the strip of strict protection. The size of the strip, depending on average annual abstraction with 15 years prediction, can be defined or calculated (computed). Application of protective measures on land use, in order to protect the resource from a qualitative and quantitative point of view, depends on natural protection level (vulnerability) of the primary aquifer. The strip for protection against chemical pollution is usually calculated or computed (taking in to account, that pollutant reached aquifer) using time criteria where potential pollutant travel time is 25 years (10,000 days). Two strips (strip 3a and strip 3b), with different protection measures applied, should be delimited. In 2010 more than 1,500 well fields (and single wells) were used to provide population with drinking water. For 650 well fields the sanitary protection strips were calculated or computed and required reports presented to Geological Survey. Totally sanitary protection zones cover about 1,300 km², which means about 2% of the territory of Lithuania. Inventory of more than 1,100 potential groundwater pollution sources, existing within sanitary protection strips, allowed assessing of possible impact to drinking water chemical composition. Assessment of possible or existing impact were carried out using indirect (no measurements) and direct (including measurements) methods. The results of this study are planned to be used for improvement of legislation regulating well head protection areas.

The concept of groundwater vulnerability assessment is a key component of integrated watershed management. A wide range of approaches for assessing groundwater vulnerability were developed based on identified factors affecting the transport of contaminants in the vadose zone. These approaches can be divided into three major categories: (1) Overlay and index methods which are based on overlaying maps of factors contributing to contamination and subsequently assigning numerical scores or ratings to develop a range of vulnerability classes; (2) process-based methods based on mathematical contaminant transport models; and (3) statistical methods that infer relationships with areas where contamination has already occurred. Many of these approaches are based on a GIS. So-called hybrid methods that involve the combination of approaches are also used and are currently a topic of research. The first objective of this study is to overview recent advances in the GIS-based approaches to groundwater vulnerability assessments. Recent advances in GIS-based vulnerability assessment approaches offer ways to perform more reliable assessments. The integration of actual groundwater quality data in the assessment process, consideration of land use patterns and the use of vigorous optimization schemes are examples of recent improvements in this area. Another objective is to present a summary of a case study demonstrating the application of an optimization procedure for the vulnerability mapping method DRASTIC. The study area is the Tahtalı stream catchment, a major drinking water reservoir supplying 1950 L/s of drinking water to the city of Izmir, the third largest city in Turkey.

To obtain a first impression of the geochemistry and quality of European ground water bottled mineral water was used as a sampling medium. In total, 1,785 bottled waters were purchased from supermarkets of 40 European countries, representing 1,247 wells/drill holes/springs at 884 locations. All bottled waters were analysed for 72 parameters at the laboratories of the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) in Germany. The geochemical maps give a first impression of the natural variation in ground water at the European scale. Geology is one of the key factors influencing the observed element concentrations for a significant number of elements. Examples include high values of (i) Cr clearly related to the occurrence of ophiolites; (ii) Li (Be, Cs) associated with areas underlain by Hercynian granites; (iii) F (K, Si) related to the occurrence of alkaline rocks, especially near the volcanic centres in Italy, and (iv) V indicating the presence of active volcanism and basaltic rocks. For some elements, the reported concentrations are influenced by bottle material. In general, glass bottles leach more elements (Ce, Pb, Al, Zr, Ti, Hf, Th, and La) to stored water than PET bottles. However, all values observed during the leaching tests were well below the respective maximum admissible concentrations, as defined for drinking water by European Union legislation.

Chlorinated solvents, including chlorinated ethenes and chlorinated ethane’s, are primary contaminants of ground waters throughout the world. Because of their abundance, toxicity and chemical properties, treatment technologies have had to evolve beyond simple bio stimulation approaches, to effectively remediate chlorinated solvent contamination in a wide range of aquifer types. During the last 15 years a number of biological treatment approaches that allow cost-effective remediation have been developed, and new technologies continue to be developed to further improve treatment and to address situations where available technologies are not optimum. In this paper we discuss the most common active biological treatment technologies for chlorinated solvent remediation, including both bio stimulation and bio augmentation based approaches, and introduce a novel treatment technology, proton reduction, that is being developed for low cost and low maintenance remediation of chlorinated solvent-contaminated aquifers.

The petrochemical industry generates series of liquid and solid wastes containing large amounts of priority pollutants during the petroleum-refining process. These residues must be treated through depuration processes. The bioremediation process, presenting countless advantages in relation to other processes employed, is an evolving method for the removal and the transformation of many environmental pollutants including those produced by the petroleum industry. In a first step, a continuously stirred tank bioreactor (CSTR) was used to optimize feasible and reliable bioprocess system for successful bioremediation of industrial effluent and to develop an efficient microbial consortium for the degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. After an experimental period of 175 days, the process was shown to be highly efficient in decontaminating the wastewater. The performance of the bio augmented reactor was demonstrated by the reduction of COD rates up to 95%. Six microbial isolates from the CSTR were characterized and species identification was confirmed by sequencing the 16 S rRNA genes. Besides, the treated wastewater could be considered as non toxic according to the micro-toxicity test. In a second step, bioremediation of a refinery soil containing hydrocarbons climate was investigated. The objective of this study was to assess the ability of bioremediation technique in the presence of the acclimatized consortium to reduce the total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content in the contaminated soil. Results clearly demonstrated that an enhanced bioremediation was carried when the acclimatized bacterial consortium was added to the hydrocarbons contaminated soil. The proposed bioremediation technology has proved significantly higher hydrocarbons removal efficiencies. TPH analysis showed that 50% of the hydrocarbons were eliminated during the first 15 days of bio remediation. TPH removal reached 96% at the end of the treatment. Further, GC/MS profile has proved that the acclimatized bacterial consortium could effectively remove the medium- and long-chain alkanes in the contaminated soil such as the alkanes were undetectable after a 30-day of incubation period. In a third step, a Halomonas sp. strain C2SS100 had been isolated and characterized from Sercina petroleum reservoir. The strain had shown potential hydrocarbon degradation under halophilic condition (100 g 1⁻¹ NaCl). During growth on n-Hexadecane (C₁₆), C2SS100 produced biosurfactant that could solubilise phenanthrene, a three-ring aromatic hydrocarbon. The halophilic character of this bacterium could add further advantages for its use in marine and saline environments-oil bioremediation.

The presence of different organic and heavy metal contaminants in groundwater and soil has a large environmental, public health and economic impact. The paper deals with a novel method of groundwater and soil remediation using nanocarbon-polymer composition (NCPC). The process of NCPC synthesis and its chemical characteristics have been described. Nano-carbon colloids (NCC) and polyethylenimine (PEI) are used to synthesis of NCPC. Metal ions interact with NCPC via ion exchange and complexation mechanism. The ability to remove metal ions from water against pH, ratio of NCC and PEI in NCPC, speed of coagulation of NCPC and size of NCC has been investigated. NCPC has a high bonding capacity of 4.0–5.7 mmol/g at pH 6 for most divalent metal ions. The percent of sorption of Zn (II), Cd (II), Cu (II), Hg (II), Ni (II) and Cr (VI) ions is higher than 99%, and distribution coefficients are 10¹–10³. The lifetime of NCPC before coagulation in the treated water and soil is 1 s to 1,000 min and depends on the ratio of polymeric molecules and carbon nanoparticle concentrations. Accordingly, the depth of penetration of NCPC in a soil or depth of remediation of soil can change from 1 to 100 cm, and distance of moving the NCPC with groundwater or remediation zone of ground can change from 1 to 100 m. Thus NCPC can be used for effective removal of metal ions from contaminated water and remediation of soil. The results of field tests of the method have been also described.

According to the German Federal Soil Protection Act, the soil, contaminated sites, and any water pollution caused by harmful soil changes shall be remediated in such a manner that no hazards, considerable disadvantages or considerable nuisances for individuals or the general public occur long term. Prior to implementation of any measure, a remediation investigation regulated by Annex 3 to the Federal Soil Protection and Contaminated Sites Ordinance (BBodSchV) is prescribed in the form of a comparative review of suitable measures (e.g. remediation methods and strategies). The stipulated measure and its consequences for the polluter must be in reasonable proportion to the hazard which has to be prevented. This means that preference must be given to that measure/combination of measures which, while being equally effective, represents the “milder means” (i.e. is necessary) and which exhibits an adequate cost-benefit ratio. Due to the complex circumstances involved in each individual case of contamination (such as geological and hydrogeological site characteristics, specific nature of the impact, and relevance of the protected assets affected by specific uses), no thresholds have been legally prescribed under German law for determining the need for remediation, nor have remediation target values been defined. Instead, the competent authorities were accorded a considerable degree of discretion, which has proved its worth in enforcement.

Contamination of soil and groundwater by organic chemicals represents a major environmental problem in urban areas throughout the United States and other industrialized nations. In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) has emerged as one of several viable methods for remediation of organically contaminated sites. Many of the most prevalent organic contaminants of concern at sites in urban areas (e.g., chlorinated solvents, motor and heating fuels) can be destroyed using catalyzed hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), sodium persulfate (Na₂S₂O₈), or ozone (O₃) delivered into the subsurface using injection wells, probes, or other techniques. A continuing challenge for ISCO, as well as other in situ remediation technologies, is how to achieve in situ delivery and obtain simultaneous contact between treatment fluids, such as oxidants and amendments, and the target contaminants. During the past few years, advances have been made in several key areas including knowledge and know-how associated with: (1) use of amendments for enhanced delivery and distribution of treatment fluids in heterogeneous settings with zones of low permeability media, (2) use of direct push technology for targeted high resolution delivery of treatment fluids, and (3) use of monitoring and sensing methods for direct feedback for delivery control and evaluation of remediation effectiveness. This paper provides a summary of ISCO and highlights ongoing efforts to advance the effective in situ delivery of treatment fluids, with an emphasis on chemical oxidants and amendments, which can help achieve cleanup goals and protect groundwater and associated drinking water resources.

National legislation first passed in the United States in 1980 creating programs to assess and cleanup sites contaminated from abandoned and on-going industrial processes, natural resource extraction industries, and urban sources of pollution such as gasoline stations and dry cleaners. It was followed by both revisions and elaboration at the federal level as well as similar legislation in most states in the years following. During the first years of these cleanup programs, efforts concentrated on the sites with the greatest risk, largely from direct exposure to drums, abandoned waste materials, large scale lagoons, spills, etc. Technologies for these problems were largely derived from classic civil engineering approaches (e.g., secure land disposal or engineered barriers) as well as available destruction technologies (i.e. incineration). As these obvious risks were controlled, the less visible contamination to groundwater rose in prominence, and existing remediation approaches (mainly pumping and treating) showed their limitations both in terms of cost and effectiveness. As U.S. EPA and others were faced with reducing costs and increasing the effectiveness of remediation of these contamination problems, they began to develop and organize cost and performance information on remediation technologies on a more real time basis. With EPA regional offices, state partners, other Federal agencies, consulting engineers and parties responsible for these contamination problems as prime “clients”, EPA headquarters devoted resource to developing cost and performance information on monitoring and measurement and clean up technologies to help users. This chapter summarizes the large body of information resources.

Since more than 20 years Austria has a specific legal and funding framework for contaminated sites management. In 2008 the Ministry of Environ­ment took the initiative to revise the legal framework and prepare a new policy based on the experiences made and taking into account international developments in industrial countries over the past years. The main goal is to proceed with the current contaminated land programme towards an integrated system of contaminated land management supporting environmentally friendly approaches and enhancing cost-efficiency.

The database of potentially polluted and polluted sites in Serbia contains geo-referenced and non geo-referenced data and information about potentially contaminated and contaminated sites, remediation activities and the data set of subjects that caused the pollution. Soil data are collected by different institutions and from different projects. The greatest number of registered sources of localized soil pollution is related to municipal waste disposal sites, oil extraction and storage sites, industrial and commercial sites. Within industrial pollution sites, oil industry has the greatest share. Remediation goals of contaminated sites are set at the national level related.

Chemical analyses of 13 bottled mineral waters were carried out at the BGR geochemical laboratories. The analyses included pH, electrical conductivity, alkalinity and concentrations of 69 elements and ions. An aquifer lithology impacts on the chemical composition of ground water significantly, especially on the explanation of conditions of forming and circulation of ground water through different lithology environments. Basic composition of ground water is usually a reflection of the lithogeochemistry of the aquifer, while micro components indicate the circulation of ground water through the different lithological environment. The waters are most frequently tapped from Neogene carbonate rocks (dolomite, limestone), and to a lesser extent from granitoid rocks, shale, and serpentinite. Based on the analyses of bottled mineral waters, it has been observed that water quality is greatly affected by the chemical composition of igneous intrusions, regardless of the fact that the analysed waters have been sampled from different aquifers (Neogene sediments, limestone, flysch, schist). Bottled waters of Serbia are mostly HCO₃-Ca, HCO₃-Ca-Mg (from carbonate rocks) and HCO₃-Na (from Neogene and igneous rocks). Among the micro components, increased concentrations of Cs, Ge, Rb, Li, and F are frequently present in bottled water, as a consequence of its circulation through granitoid rocks. Some samples contain a higher concentration of B, I, NH₄, Tl, W, as the consequence of the aquifer environment.

The paper presents latest developments for the last 20 years, starting from the 1990s of the twentieth century in management of soil and water resources in Poland with analysis of the needs for further improvements in technological innovations and improvements in management practice. Needs for further improvements concern better administrative procedures, systemic identification of soil and water problems e.g. sites, risk based management and orientation on sustainability in environmental protection, remediation and revitalisation of contaminated sites. Improvements in administrative practices should be based on the experiences gathered so far and good examples from other countries. There is a need for better protection and remediation technologies in terms of their cost-effectiveness and sustainability including application of in-situ techniques in soil and groundwater remediation. Environmental management can also be improved by the development and application of soft tools for problem identification, management and control. Technologies tackling diffuse contamination are also important. Future research topics should concern protecting and enhancing jointly soil functions and water protection especially on built-in areas in accordance with Framework Water Directive and the proposed Soil Framework Directive (COM(2006) 232) framework.

In the Czech Republic the universal objective of the national water management policy is to create conditions for sustainable management of the finite water resources. This implies that all forms of water resource use should be in compliance with water and aquatic ecosystem protection requirements while applying measures to reduce the harmful effects of contaminated water. The key principles of the water management policy are derived from the EU Water Framework Directive, other water management directives and the renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy. The Water Protection Department of the Ministry of the Environment is the central water management authority. The Czech Republic also pays a big attention to environmental damages mostly on ground water aquifers created before privatization of industry, also partly of agriculture production and after Soviet Army stay (1968–1991). A case study of remediation of a large-scale petroleum contamination of soil and groundwater at the former Soviet Army air base at Hradcany is reported. The air base and its vicinity are part of the sedimentary complex of the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin, which is a significant groundwater supply source for the Czech Republic. The site served as an army air base from World War II to 1992 and a large contamination plume – 28 ha 7,000 metric ton of petroleum products release –had to be remediated between 1997 and 2010.

The objective of the Drinking Water Directive (Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption) is to protect the health of the consumers in the European Union and to make sure the water is wholesome and clean. To make sure drinking water everywhere in the EU is healthy, clean and tasty, the Drinking Water Directive sets standards for the most common substances (so-called parameters) that can be found in drinking water. In the DWD a total of 48 microbiological and chemical parameters must be monitored and tested regularly. In principle WHO guidelines for drinking water are used as a basis for the standards in the Drinking Water Directive. Drinking-water quality management has been a key pillar of primary prevention for over one-and-a-half centuries and it continues to be the foundation for the prevention and control of waterborne diseases. Water is essential for life, but it can and does transmit disease in countries in all continents – from the poorest to the wealthiest. The most predominant waterborne disease, diarrhoea, has an estimated annual incidence of 4.6 billion episodes and causes 2.2 million deaths every year. The Protocol on Water and Health is the first major international legal approach for the prevention, control and reduction of water-related diseases in Europe. There have been some activities organized by the WHO and UNECE to tackle the issues about the influence of water pollution to the health and the environment. The aim of the paper is to review challenges, experiences, drinking water quality and health-related risks worldwide and particularly linked to small water supplies comparing with the public water supplying systems (up to 5,000 consumers) in the Republic of Macedonia. The difference with the public water supplying systems is protected catchments’ area and organised maintenance of the water supplying network, as well continuous disinfection of drinking water. The final goal is to protect public health, especially to people living in rural areas.