Contamination Links Between Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems: The Neonicotinoid Case

Current rates of economic development are interrelated with an increase in environmental pollution. Among different contamination agents, modern insecticides such as neonicotinoids (NNIs) require precise attention in evaluation of losses and benefits. NNIs is relatively new class of systemic insecticides, being in use for about 20 years and embracing around 25% of global pesticide market. Currently there are several methods to apply NNIs to plants such as foliar sprays, soil drenches and seed treatments, and in recent years there has been a global shift towards seed treatment (seed dressing) rather than aerial spraying. The discovery of NNIs was considered as a milestone in the research on insecticides. Possessing chemical structure similar to nicotine and acting as agonists at insects’ acetylcholine receptors, NNIs demonstrate selective toxicity to invertebrates versus vertebrates. In addition, toxicity of NNIs in mammals is between one to three orders of magnitude lower than the toxicity caused by their predecessors: organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids. However, NNIs are mobile contaminants that can be transferred from plants to soils and water and induce diverse array of toxic effects in non-target organisms, even affecting animals not in contact with them directly. Surface- and groundwater may also act as vector for the transport of NNIs to untreated locations. The presence of NNIs in water bodies might facilitate their uptake by non-target plants present in littoral and riparian zones, with the potential threat to herbivorous insects. Leaching of NNIs to groundwater may imply their further distribution to other matrices, potentially leading to undesirable environmental issues. Pollinators and aquatic insects appear to be especially susceptible to these insecticides and chronic sublethal effects tend to be more prevalent than acute toxicity. Although a complete knowledge of the fate of NNIs in the environments is missing, authorities are starting to react to the threat they pose by limiting their use and application. Relevant improvements have been made in the field of the toxicity to non-target organisms. Studies that include factors such as mixture toxicity, field or semi-field exposures can make significant contribution to the further evaluating of costs-benefits of neonicotinoids.